Global Opportunity, Markets, Applications, Technologies and Companies-Wearable electronics and sensors, medical and healthcare smart textiles and wearables, smart clothing and apparel, sportswear, wearable energy storage and harvesting
The number and variety of smart textiles and wearable electronic devices has increased significantly in the past few years, as they offer significant enhancements to human comfort, health and well-being. Wearable low-power silicon electronics, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) fabricated on fabrics, textiles with integrated Lithium-ion batteries (LIB) and electronic devices such as smart glasses, watches and lenses have been widely investigated and commercialized (e.g. Google glass, Apple Watch). There is increasing demand for wearable electronics from industries such as:
- Medical and healthcare monitoring and diagnostics.
- Sportswear and fitness monitoring (bands).
- Consumer electronics such as smart watches, smart glasses and headsets.
- Military GPS trackers, equipment (helmets) and wearable robots.
- Smart apparel and footwear in fashion and sport.
- Workplace safety and manufacturing.
However, improvements in sensors, flexible & printable electronics and energy devices are necessary for wider implementation and nanomaterials and/or their hybrids are enabling the next phase convergence of textiles, electronics and informatics. They are opening the way for the integration of electronic components and sensors (e.g. heat and humidity) in high strength, flexible and electrically conductive textiles with energy storage and harvesting capabilities, biological functions, antimicrobial properties, and many other new functionalities.
The industry is now moving towards the development of electronic devices with flexible, thin, and large-area form factors. Electronic devices that are fabricated on flexible substrates for application in flexible displays, electronic paper, smart packages, skin-like sensors, wearable electronics, implantable medical implements etc. is a fast growing market. Their future development depends greatly on the exploitation of advanced materials.
Nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes (CNT), silver nanowires graphene and other 2D materials are viewed as key materials for the future development of wearable electronics for implementation in healthcare and fitness monitoring, electronic devices incorporated into clothing and ‘smart skin’ applications (printed graphene-based sensors integrated with other 2D materials for physiological monitoring).
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY…………………………………………………………. 19
1.1 What are smart textiles?…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 19
1.2 Nanotechnology and smart textile & wearable technology……………………………………………… 21
1.3 Growth in the wearable electronics market…………………………………………………………………….. 24
1.3.1 Recent growth………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 24
1.3.2 Future growth…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 24
1.3.3 Nanotechnology as a market driver……………………………………………………………………….. 24
1.4 Growth in remote health monitoring and diagnostics……………………………………………………… 25
1.5 From rigid to flexible and stretchable……………………………………………………………………………… 26
2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY………………………………………………… 27
3 NANOMATERIALS………………………………………………………………… 28
3.1 Properties of nanomaterials……………………………………………………………………………………………. 28
3.2 Categorization………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 29
4 NANOMATERIALS IN TEXTILES…………………………………………….. 31
4.1 Why use “nanoTextiles”?………………………………………………………………………………………………… 31
4.1.1 Protective textiles…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 33
4.1.2 Electronic textiles…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 36
4.2 CARBON NANOTUBES…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 37
4.2.1 Properties………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 38
4.2.2 Properties utilized in smart textiles and wearables…………………………………………………. 40
4.2.3 Applications in smart textiles and wearables………………………………………………………….. 40
4.3 GRAPHENE…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 40
4.3.1 Properties………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 41
4.3.2 Properties utilized in smart textiles and wearables…………………………………………………. 43
4.3.3 Applications in smart textiles and wearables………………………………………………………….. 44
4.4 NANOCELLULOSE………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 44
4.4.1 Properties………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 46
4.4.2 Properties utilized in smart textiles and wearables…………………………………………………. 49
4.4.3 Applications in smart textiles and wearables………………………………………………………….. 50
4.5 NANOFIBERS………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 51
4.5.1 Properties………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 51
4.5.2 Properties utilized in smart textiles and wearables…………………………………………………. 52
4.5.3 Applications in smart textiles and wearables………………………………………………………….. 52
4.6 QUANTUM DOTS………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 52
4.6.1 Properties………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 52
4.6.2 Properties utilized in smart textiles and wearables…………………………………………………. 55
4.6.3 Applications in smart textiles and wearables………………………………………………………….. 55
4.7 SILVER NANOWIRES……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 55
4.7.1 Properties………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 56
4.7.2 Properties utilized in smart textiles and wearables…………………………………………………. 56
4.7.3 Applications in smart textiles and wearables………………………………………………………….. 56
4.8 NANOSILVER………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 57
4.8.1 Properties………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 58
4.8.2 Applications……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 58
4.9 ANTI-MICROBIAL NANOCOATINGS…………………………………………………………………………….. 60
4.9.1 Properties………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 62
4.9.2 Applications……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 67
4.10 OTHER NANOMATERIALS IN SMART TEXTILES AND WEARABL………………………… 69
4.10.1 Graphene and carbon quantum dots…………………………………………………………………. 69
4.10.1.1 Properties………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 70
4.10.1.2 Applications in electronics……………………………………………………………………………… 71
4.10.2 Black phosphorus/Phosphorene………………………………………………………………………… 71
4.10.2.1 Properties………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 72
4.10.2.2 Applications in electronics……………………………………………………………………………… 73
4.10.3 C2N…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 73
4.10.3.1 Properties………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 74
4.10.3.2 Applications in electronics……………………………………………………………………………… 75
4.10.4 Germanene………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 75
4.10.4.1 Properties………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 75
4.10.4.2 Applications in electronics……………………………………………………………………………… 76
4.10.5 Graphdiyne………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 76
4.10.5.1 Properties………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 77
4.10.5.2 Applications in electronics……………………………………………………………………………… 77
4.10.6 Graphane…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 77
4.10.6.1 Properties………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 78
4.10.6.2 Applications in electronics……………………………………………………………………………… 78
4.10.6.3 Properties………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 79
4.10.6.4 Applications in electronics……………………………………………………………………………… 80
4.10.7 Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2)…………………………………………………………………………….. 80
4.10.7.1 Properties………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 80
4.10.7.2 Applications in electronics……………………………………………………………………………… 81
4.10.8 Rhenium disulfide (ReS2) and diselenide (ReSe2)……………………………………………. 82
4.10.8.1 Properties………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 83
4.10.8.2 Applications in electronics……………………………………………………………………………… 83
4.10.9 Silicene………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 83
4.10.9.1 Properties………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 84
4.10.9.2 Applications in electronics……………………………………………………………………………… 85
4.10.10 Stanene/tinene…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 86
4.10.10.1 Properties………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 86
4.10.10.2 Applications in electronics………………………………………………………………………….. 87
4.10.11 Tungsten diselenide…………………………………………………………………………………………… 87
5 WEARABLE SENSORS AND ELECTRONIC TEXTILES…………….. 89
5.1 MARKET DRIVERS……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 89
5.1.1 Growth in the wearable electronics market…………………………………………………………….. 89
5.1.2 ITO replacement for flexible electronics…………………………………………………………………. 89
5.1.3 Energy needs of wearable devices………………………………………………………………………… 91
5.1.4 Increased power and performance of sensors with reduced cost…………………………… 91
5.1.5 Growth in the printed sensors market…………………………………………………………………….. 91
5.1.6 Growth in the home diagnostics and point of care market……………………………………… 91
5.2 APPLICATIONS……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 92
5.2.1 Wearable electronics……………………………………………………………………………………………… 92
5.2.1.1 Current state of the art…………………………………………………………………………………… 92
5.2.1.2 Nanotechnology solutions……………………………………………………………………………… 94
5.2.1.3 Conductive inks……………………………………………………………………………………………. 103
5.2.2 Wearable sensors………………………………………………………………………………………………… 107
5.2.2.1 Current stage of the art………………………………………………………………………………… 107
5.2.2.2 Nanotechnology solutions……………………………………………………………………………. 109
5.2.2.3 Wearable gas sensors…………………………………………………………………………………. 112
5.2.2.4 Wearable strain sensors………………………………………………………………………………. 113
5.2.2.5 Wearable tactile sensors……………………………………………………………………………… 113
5.3 GLOBAL MARKET SIZE AND OPPORTUNITY…………………………………………………………… 114
5.3.1 Global market revenues……………………………………………………………………………………….. 114
5.3.2 Nanotech opportunity…………………………………………………………………………………………… 115
5.3.3 Market challenges………………………………………………………………………………………………… 116
5.3.3.1 Manufacturing……………………………………………………………………………………………… 116
5.3.3.2 Integration……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 117
5.3.3.3 Competing materials……………………………………………………………………………………. 117
5.3.3.4 Cost of nanomaterials………………………………………………………………………………….. 117
5.3.3.5 Sensor selectivity and recovery…………………………………………………………………… 117
5.4 PRODUCT DEVELOPERS…………………………………………………………………………………………… 118-128 (28 company profiles)
6 MEDICAL AND HEALTHCARE SMART TEXTILES AND WEARABLES………………………………………………………………………….. 129
6.1 MARKET DRIVERS……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 129
6.1.1 Universal to individualized medicine…………………………………………………………………….. 129
6.1.2 Growth in the wearable monitoring market…………………………………………………………… 129
6.1.3 Need for new materials for continuous health monitoring and adaptability…………… 130
6.2 APPLICATIONS…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 131
6.2.1 Current state of the art…………………………………………………………………………………………. 131
6.2.2 Nanotechnology solutions……………………………………………………………………………………. 134
6.2.2.1 Flexible/stretchable health monitors…………………………………………………………….. 135
6.2.2.2 Patch-type skin sensors………………………………………………………………………………. 136
6.3 GLOBAL MARKET SIZE AND OPPORTUNITY…………………………………………………………… 138
6.3.1 Global market revenues……………………………………………………………………………………….. 138
6.3.2 Nanotech opportunity…………………………………………………………………………………………… 139
6.3.3 Market challenges………………………………………………………………………………………………… 140
6.4 PRODUCT DEVELOPERS…………………………………………………………………………………………… 140- 142 (6 company profiles)
7 SMART CLOTHING AND APPAREL INCLUDING SPORTSWEAR 143
7.1 MARKET DRIVERS……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 143
7.1.1 Reduction in size, appearance and cost of sensors……………………………………………… 143
7.1.2 Increasing demand for smart fitness clothing……………………………………………………….. 143
7.1.3 Improved medical analysis…………………………………………………………………………………… 143
7.1.4 Smart workwear for improved worker safety………………………………………………………… 144
7.2 APPLICATIONS…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 144
7.2.1 Current state of the art…………………………………………………………………………………………. 144
7.2.2 Nanotechnology solutions……………………………………………………………………………………. 146
7.3 MARKET SIZE AND OPPORTUNITY………………………………………………………………………….. 153
7.3.1 Global market revenues……………………………………………………………………………………….. 153
7.3.2 Nanotech opportunity…………………………………………………………………………………………… 155
7.3.3 Market challenges………………………………………………………………………………………………… 157
7.4 PRODUCT DEVELOPERS…………………………………………………………………………………………… 158-177 (44 company profiles)
8 WEARABLE ENERGY STORAGE AND HARVESTING DEVICES 178
8.1 MARKET DRIVERS……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 178
8.1.1 Inadequacies of current battery technology for wearables…………………………………… 178
8.1.2 Need for flexible power sources…………………………………………………………………………… 178
8.1.3 Energy harvesting for “disappearables”……………………………………………………………….. 179
8.2 APPLICATIONS…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 179
8.2.1 Current state of the art…………………………………………………………………………………………. 179
8.2.2 Nanotechnology solutions……………………………………………………………………………………. 182
8.2.2.1 Flexible and stretchable batteries………………………………………………………………… 182
8.2.2.2 Flexible and stretchable supercapacitors…………………………………………………….. 183
8.2.2.3 Solar energy harvesting textiles…………………………………………………………………… 185
8.3 GLOBAL MARKET SIZE AND OPPORTUNITY…………………………………………………………… 187
8.3.1 Global market revenues……………………………………………………………………………………….. 187
8.3.2 Nanotech opportunity…………………………………………………………………………………………… 191
8.3.3 Market challenges………………………………………………………………………………………………… 193
8.4 PRODUCT DEVELOPERS…………………………………………………………………………………………… 193- 195 (6 company profiles)
9 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………….. 196
TABLES
Table 1: Types of smart textiles………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 19
Table 2: Smart textile products…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 20
Table 3: Evolution of wearable devices, 2011-2016……………………………………………………………………. 22
Table 4: Categorization of nanomaterials……………………………………………………………………………………. 29
Table 5: Desirable functional properties for the textiles industry afforded by the use of nanomaterials……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 31
Table 6: Nanocoatings applied in the textiles industry-type of coating, nanomaterials utilized, benefits and applications………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 33
Table 7: Market summary for carbon nanotubes-Selling grade particle diameter, usage, advantages, average price/ton, high volume applications, low volume applications and novel applications…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 36
Table 8: Properties of CNTs and comparable materials……………………………………………………………… 38
Table 9: Market summary for graphene-Selling grade particle diameter, usage, advantages, average price/ton, high volume applications, low volume applications and novel applications. 40
Table 10: Properties of graphene……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 41
Table 11: Market summary for nanocellulose-Selling grade particle diameter, usage, advantages, average price/ton, high volume applications, low volume applications and novel applications. 43
Table 12: Nanocellulose properties…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 47
Table 13: Properties and applications of nanocellulose………………………………………………………………. 48
Table 14: Market summary for nanofibers- Selling grade particle diameter, advantages, average price/ton, high volume applications, low volume applications and novel applications…………… 50
Table 15: Market summary for nanowires-Selling grade particle diameter, usage, advantages, average price/ton, market estimates, high volume applications, low volume applications and novel applications…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 54
Table 16: Market summary for nanosilver-Selling grade particle diameter, usage, advantages, average price/ton, high volume applications, low volume applications and novel applications. 56
Table 17: Anti-microbial nanocoatings-Nanomaterials used, principles, properties and applications……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 60
Table 18: Nanomaterials utilized in anti-microbial coatings-benefits and applications………………… 64
Table 19: Anti-microbial nanocoatings markets and applications……………………………………………….. 66
Table 20: Schematic of (a) CQDs and (c) GQDs. HRTEM images of (b) C-dots and (d) GQDs showing combination of zigzag and armchair edges (positions marked as 1–4……………………. 68
Table 21: Properties of graphene quantum dots…………………………………………………………………………. 69
Table 22: Electronic and mechanical properties of monolayer phosphorene, graphene and MoS2. 72
Table 23: Comparison of ITO replacements……………………………………………………………………………….. 89
Table 24: Wearable electronics devices and stage of development…………………………………………… 92
Table 25: Applications in wearable electronics, by nanomaterials type and benefits thereof……… 94
Table 26: Applications in conductive inks by nanomaterials type and benefits thereof…………….. 103
Table 27: Graphene properties relevant to application in sensors……………………………………………. 111
Table 28: Global market for wearables, 2014-2021, units and US$………………………………………….. 113
Table 29: Wearable medical device products and stage of development…………………………………. 130
Table 30: Applications in flexible and stretchable health monitors, by nanomaterials type and benefits thereof…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 134
Table 31: Applications in patch-type skin sensors, by nanomaterials type and benefits thereof.. 137
Table 32: Potential addressable market for smart textiles and wearables in medical and healthcare…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 137
Table 33: Currently available technologies for smart textiles……………………………………………………. 143
Table 34: Smart clothing and apparel and stage of development…………………………………………….. 144
Table 35: Desirable functional properties for the textiles industry afforded by the use of nanomaterials……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 146
Table 36: Applications in textiles, by nanomaterials type and benefits thereof…………………………. 147
Table 37: Nanocoatings applied in the textiles industry-type of coating, nanomaterials utilized, benefits and applications…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 149
Table 38: Global market for smart clothing and apparel, 2014-2021, units and revenues (US$). 153
Table 39: Market assessment for the nanotechnology in the smart clothing and apparel market. 156
Table 40: Wearable energy and energy harvesting devices and stage of development…………… 180
Table 41: Applications in flexible and stretchable batteries, by nanomaterials type and benefits thereof………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 181
Table 42: Applications in flexible and stretchable supercapacitors, by nanomaterials type and benefits thereof…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 184
Table 43: Applications in energy harvesting textiles, by nanomaterials type and benefits thereof. 186
Table 44: Potential addressable market for thin film, flexible and printed batteries…………………… 186
Table 45: Market assessment for the nanotechnology in the wearable energy storage (printed and flexible battery) market……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 191
Table 46: Market assessment for the nanotechnology in the wearable energy harvesting market…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 191
Table 47: Market challenges rating for nanotechnology and nanomaterials in the wearable energy storage and harvesting market……………………………………………………………………………………………. 192
FIGURES
Figure 1: Evolution of electronics………………………………………………………………………………………………… 22
Figure 2: Wearable health monitor incorporating graphene photodetectors……………………………….. 26
Figure 3: Polyera Wove Band…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 27
Figure 4: Graphene layer structure schematic……………………………………………………………………………. 43
Figure 5: Hierarchical Structure of Wood Biomass……………………………………………………………………… 47
Figure 6: Types of nanocellulose………………………………………………………………………………………………… 48
Figure 7: LEDs shining on circuitry imprinted on a 5x5cm sheet of CNF…………………………………….. 51
Figure 8: Quantum dot………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 53
Figure 9: The light-blue curve represents a typical spectrum from a conventional white-LED LCD TV. With quantum dots, the spectrum is tunable to any colours of red, green, and blue, and each Color is limited to a narrow band………………………………………………………………………………….. 54
Figure 10: Supply chain for nanosilver products…………………………………………………………………………. 59
Figure 11: Mechanism of microbial inactivation and degradation with anti-microbial PhotoProtect nanocoatings………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 63
Figure 12: Schematic of silver nanoparticles penetrating bacterial cell membrane…………………….. 64
Figure 13: : Antibacterial mechanism of nanosilver particles………………………………………………………. 65
Figure 14: Black phosphorus structure……………………………………………………………………………………….. 72
Figure 15: Structural difference between graphene and C2N-h2D crystal: (a) graphene; (b) C2N-h2D crystal……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 74
Figure 16: Schematic of germanene…………………………………………………………………………………………… 75
Figure 17: Graphdiyne structure…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 77
Figure 18: Schematic of Graphane crystal………………………………………………………………………………….. 78
Figure 19: Structure of hexagonal boron nitride………………………………………………………………………….. 79
Figure 20: Structure of 2D molybdenum disulfide……………………………………………………………………….. 80
Figure 21: Atomic force microscopy image of a representative MoS2 thin-film transistor…………… 81
Figure 22: Schematic of the molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) thin-film sensor with the deposited molecules that create additional charge……………………………………………………………………………….. 82
Figure 23: Schematic of a monolayer of rhenium disulphide………………………………………………………. 83
Figure 24: Silicene structure……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 84
Figure 25: Monolayer silicene on a silver (111) substrate…………………………………………………………… 85
Figure 26: Silicene transistor………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 86
Figure 27: Crystal structure for stanene……………………………………………………………………………………… 86
Figure 28: Atomic structure model for the 2D stanene on Bi2Te3(111)………………………………………. 87
Figure 29: Schematic of tungsten diselenide………………………………………………………………………………. 88
Figure 30: Covestro wearables…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 94
Figure 31: Panasonic CNT stretchable Resin Film……………………………………………………………………… 95
Figure 32: Bending durability of Ag nanowires………………………………………………………………………….. 100
Figure 33: NFC computer chip………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 101
Figure 34: NFC translucent diffuser schematic…………………………………………………………………………. 102
Figure 35: Graphene printed antenna………………………………………………………………………………………. 105
Figure 36: BGT Materials graphene ink product……………………………………………………………………….. 107
Figure 37: Softceptor sensor…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 108
Figure 38: BeBop Media Arm Controller…………………………………………………………………………………… 109
Figure 39: LG Innotek flexible textile pressure sensor………………………………………………………………. 109
Figure 40: <hitoe> nanofiber conductive shirt original design(top) and current design (bottom).. 110
Figure 41: Garment-based printable electrodes……………………………………………………………………….. 111
Figure 42: Wearable gas sensor………………………………………………………………………………………………. 113
Figure 43: Global market revenues for smart wearable devices 2014-2021, in US$………………… 114
Figure 44: Global market revenues for nanotech-enabled smart wearable devices 2014-2021 in US$, conservative estimate………………………………………………………………………………………………… 115
Figure 45: Global market revenues for nanotech-enabled smart wearable devices 2014-2021 in US$, optimistic estimate……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 116
Figure 46: TempTraQ wearable wireless thermometer…………………………………………………………….. 130
Figure 47: Graphene-based E-skin patch…………………………………………………………………………………. 131
Figure 48: Flexible, lightweight temperature sensor…………………………………………………………………. 131
Figure 49: Smart e-skin system comprising health-monitoring sensors, displays, and ultra flexible PLEDs………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 136
Figure 50: Graphene medical patch………………………………………………………………………………………….. 137
Figure 51: Potential addressable market for nanotech-enabled medical smart textiles and wearables…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 139
Figure 52: Omniphobic-coated fabric………………………………………………………………………………………… 146
Figure 53: Global market revenues for smart clothing and apparel 2014-2021, in US$……………. 155
Figure 54: Global market revenues for nanotech-enabled smart clothing and apparel 2014-2021, in US$, conservative estimate………………………………………………………………………………………………… 156
Figure 55: Global market revenues for nanotech-enabled smart clothing and apparel 2014-2021, in US$, optimistic estimate……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 156
Figure 56: Energy harvesting textile…………………………………………………………………………………………. 179
Figure 57: StretchSense Energy Harvesting Kit……………………………………………………………………….. 180
Figure 58: LG Chem Heaxagonal battery…………………………………………………………………………………. 181
Figure 59: Energy densities and specific energy of rechargeable batteries………………………………. 184
Figure 60: Stretchable graphene supercapacitor………………………………………………………………………. 184
Figure 61: Schematic illustration of the fabrication concept for textile-based dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) made by sewing textile electrodes onto cloth or paper………………………………… 186
Figure 62: Demand for thin film, flexible and printed batteries 2015, by market……………………….. 189
Figure 63: Demand for thin film, flexible and printed batteries 2025, by market……………………….. 190
Figure 64: Potential addressable market for nanotech-enabled thin film, flexible or printed batteries…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 191
