- Published: September 2024
- Pages: 340
- Tables: 48
- Figures: 70
The market for biodegradable and compostable packaging is experiencing rapid growth, driven by increasing environmental awareness, stringent regulations, and shifting consumer preferences towards sustainable products. This sector has emerged as a crucial component of the global packaging industry, offering eco-friendly alternatives to traditional plastic packaging. Currently, the market is characterized by a diverse range of materials and technologies, including polylactic acid (PLA), polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), starch-based blends, and cellulose-derived packaging solutions. These materials are finding applications across various industries, with food packaging representing the largest segment due to growing concerns about plastic waste in the food supply chain. Major players in the packaging industry are investing heavily in research and development to improve the performance and cost-effectiveness of biodegradable materials. Simultaneously, numerous start-ups and innovative companies are entering the market with novel solutions, such as seaweed-based packaging and mycelium-derived materials. The market is witnessing a trend towards the development of compostable packaging that can break down in home composting conditions, addressing the limitations of industrial composting infrastructure. Additionally, there is a growing focus on creating multi-functional packaging that not only biodegrades but also offers enhanced shelf life for products or incorporates smart technologies.
Despite its growth, the biodegradable packaging market faces challenges, including higher production costs compared to conventional plastics, performance limitations in certain applications, and the need for proper waste management infrastructure. However, ongoing technological advancements and economies of scale are gradually addressing these issues. As the global push for sustainability intensifies, the biodegradable and compostable packaging market is expected to continue its upward trajectory. The industry is likely to see further innovations, increased adoption across various sectors, and potential consolidation as larger companies acquire promising technologies. This growth is not only reshaping the packaging industry but also contributing significantly to global efforts in reducing plastic waste and environmental pollution.
The Global Market for Biodegradable and Compostable Packaging 2025-2035 provides a thorough examination of the market landscape from 2025 to 2035, offering valuable insights for manufacturers, investors, and stakeholders in the sustainable packaging ecosystem. Report contents include:
- Market Size and Growth Projections: Detailed forecasts of the biodegradable and compostable packaging market size and growth rate from 2025 to 2035, segmented by product type, material, end-use industry, and region.
- Material Innovation Deep Dive: Comprehensive analysis of both synthetic and natural biobased packaging materials, including PLA, Bio-PET, PHA, starch-based blends, and emerging solutions like mycelium and seaweed-based packaging.
- Application Landscape: Exploration of key application areas such as food packaging, consumer goods, pharmaceuticals, and e-commerce, with insights into specific requirements and growth opportunities.
- Competitive Landscape: Profiles of leading companies and emerging players in the biodegradable packaging space, including their technologies, strategies, and market positioning. Companies profiled include 9Fiber, Inc., ADBioplastics, Advanced Biochemical (Thailand) Co., Ltd., Aeropowder Limited, AGRANA Staerke GmbH, Ahlstrom-Munksjö Oyj, Alberta Innovates/Innotech Materials, LLC, Alter Eco Pulp, Alterpacks, AmicaTerra, An Phát Bioplastics, Anellotech, Inc., Ankor Bioplastics Co., Ltd., ANPOLY, Inc., Apeel Sciences, Applied Bioplastics, Aquapak Polymers Ltd, Archer Daniel Midland Company (ADM), Arekapak GmbH, Arkema S.A, Arrow Greentech, Asahi Kasei Chemicals Corporation, Attis Innovations, llc, Avani Eco, Avantium B.V., Avient Corporation, Balrampur Chini Mills, BASF SE, Bio Fab NZ, Bio Plast Pom, Bio2Coat, Bioelements Group, Biofibre GmbH, Bioform Technologies, Biokemik, BIOLO, BioLogiQ, Inc., Biome Bioplastics, Biomass Resin Holdings Co., Ltd., BIO-FED, BIO-LUTIONS International AG, Bioplastech Ltd, BioSmart Nano, BIOTEC GmbH & Co. KG, Biovox GmbH, BlockTexx Pty Ltd., Blue Ocean Closures, Bluepha Beijing Lanjing Microbiology Technology Co., Ltd., BOBST, Borealis AG, Brightplus Oy, Business Innovation Partners Co., Ltd., Carbiolice, Carbios, Cardia Bioplastics Ltd., CARAPAC Company, Cass Materials Pty Ltd, Celanese Corporation, Cellugy, Cellutech AB (Stora Enso), Chemkey Advanced Materials Technology (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Chemol Company (Seydel), CJ Biomaterials, Inc., Coastgrass ApS, Corumat, Inc., Cruz Foam, CuanTec Ltd., Daicel Polymer Ltd., Daio Paper Corporation, Danimer Scientific LLC, DIC Corporation, DIC Products, Inc., DKS Co. Ltd., Dow, Inc., DuFor Resins B.V., DuPont, Earthodic Pty Ltd., Ecomann Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Ecoshell, EcoSynthetix, Inc., Ecovia Renewables, Enkev, Epoch Biodesign, Eranova, Esbottle Oy, Fiberlean Technologies, Fiberwood Oy, FKuR Kunststoff GmbH, Floreon, Footprint, Fraunhofer Institute for Silicate Research ISC, Full Cycle Bioplastics LLC, Futamura Chemical Co., Ltd., Futuramat Sarl, Futurity Bio-Ventures Ltd., Genecis Bioindustries, Inc., Grabio Greentech Corporation, Granbio Technologies, GreenNano Technologies Inc., GS Alliance Co. Ltd, Guangzhou Bio-plus Materials Technology Co., Ltd., Hokuetsu Toyo Fibre Co., Ltd., Holmen Iggesund, IUV Srl, Jiangsu Jinhe Hi-Tech Co., Ltd., Jiangsu Torise Biomaterials Co., Ltd, JinHui ZhaoLang High Technology Co., Ltd., Kagzi Bottles Private Limited, Kami Shoji Company, Kaneka Corporation, Kelpi Industries Ltd., Kingfa Sci. & Tech. Co. Ltd., Klabin S.A., Lactips S.A., LAM'ON, LanzaTech, Licella, Lignin Industries, Loick Biowertstoff GmbH, LOTTE Chemical Corporation, MadeRight, MakeGrowLab, Marea, Marine Innovation Co., Ltd, Melodea Ltd., Mi Terro, Inc., Mitr Phol, Mitsubishi Chemical Corporation, Mitsubishi Polyester Film GmbH, Mitsui Chemicals, Inc., Mobius, Mondi, Multibax Public Co., Ltd., Nabaco, Inc., NatPol, Nature Coatings, Inc., NatureWorks LLC, New Zealand Natural Fibers (NZNF), Newlight Technologies, NEXE Innovations Inc., Nippon Paper Industries, Notpla, Novamont S.p.A., Novomer, Oimo, Oji Paper Company, Omya, one • five GmbH, Origin Materials, Pack2Earth, Paptic Ltd., Pivot Materials LLC, Plafco Fibertech Oy, Plantic Technologies Ltd., Plantics B.V., Poliloop, Polyferm Canada, Pond Biomaterials, Provenance Biofabrics, Inc., PT Intera Lestari Polimer, PTT MCC Biochem Co., Ltd., Qnature UG, Rengo Co., Ltd., Rise Innventia AB, Rodenburg Productie B.V., Roquette S.A., RWDC Industries, S.lab, Sappi Limited, Saudi Basic Industries Corp. (SABIC), Searo, Shellworks, Shenzhen Ecomann Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Sirmax Group, SK Chemicals Co., Ltd., Solvay SA, Spectrus Sustainable Solutions Pvt Ltd, Spero Renewables, StePAc, Stora Enso Oyj, Sufresca, Sulapac Oy, Sulzer Chemtech AG, SUPLA Bioplastics, Sway Innovation Co., Sweetwater Energy, Taghleef Industries Llc, Teal Bioworks, Inc., TemperPack® Technologies, Termotécnica, TerraVerdae BioWorks Inc, Tianjin GreenBio Materials Co., Ltd, Ticinoplast, TIPA, Toppan Printing Co., Ltd., Toraphene, TotalEnergies Corbion, Universal Bio Pack Co., Ltd., UPM Biochemicals, UPM-Kymmene Oyj, Valentis Nanotech, Vegea srl, Verso Corporation, Weidmann Fiber Technology, Woamy Oy, Woodly Ltd., Worn Again Technologies, Xampla, Yangi, Yokohama Bio Frontier, Inc., Zelfo Technology, ZeroCircle, Zhejiang Jinjiahao Green Nanomaterial Co., Ltd.
- Sustainability Impact: Assessment of the environmental benefits and challenges associated with biodegradable and compostable packaging, including life cycle analyses and circular economy initiatives.
- Recent developments in biodegradable packaging technology.
- Market Drivers and Opportunities.
- Challenges and Market Dynamics
- Regional Analysis and Market Opportunities
- In-depth analysis of biodegradable packaging applications across various industries:
- Food and Beverage: Largest market segment with diverse applications from fresh produce to dairy packaging
- Consumer Goods: Growing demand in personal care and household products
- Pharmaceutical: Increasing use of bioplastics in medical packaging and drug delivery systems
- E-commerce: Rising adoption of sustainable packaging solutions for online retail
- Materials Benchmarking and Performance Analysis
- Manufacturing and Processing Innovations
- Improvements in extrusion and thermoforming processes
- Novel approaches to enhance material properties
- Scalability considerations for mass production
- Quality control and testing methodologies
- Investment Landscape and Market Opportunities
- Regulatory Framework and Standards
As the world moves towards more sustainable packaging solutions, understanding the biodegradable and compostable packaging market is crucial for:
- Packaging manufacturers looking to expand their product portfolio
- Brand owners seeking to meet sustainability goals and consumer demands
- Investors interested in high-growth areas of the packaging industry
- Policy makers developing regulations for sustainable packaging
- Researchers and material scientists working on next-generation packaging solutions
1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 18
- 1.1 Global Packaging Market 18
- 1.2 The Market for Biodegradable and Compostable Packaging 18
- 1.2.1 By product type 19
- 1.2.2 By end-use market 20
- 1.2.3 By region 21
- 1.3 Main types 23
- 1.3.1 Cellulose acetate 23
- 1.3.2 PLA 24
- 1.3.3 Aliphatic-aromatic co-polyesters 26
- 1.3.4 PHA 27
- 1.3.5 Starch/starch blends 29
- 1.4 Prices 30
- 1.5 Market Trends 31
- 1.6 Market Drivers for recent growth in Biodegradable and Compostable Packaging 33
- 1.7 Challenges for Biodegradable and Compostable Packaging 36
2 BIOBASED MATERIALS IN BIODEGRADABLE AND COMPOSTABLE PACKAGING 38
- 2.1 Materials innovation 38
- 2.2 Active packaging 38
- 2.3 Monomaterial packaging 38
- 2.4 Conventional polymer materials used in packaging 39
- 2.4.1 Polyolefins: Polypropylene and polyethylene 40
- 2.4.1.1 Overview 40
- 2.4.1.2 Grades 40
- 2.4.1.3 Producers 41
- 2.4.2 PET and other polyester polymers 42
- 2.4.2.1 Overview 42
- 2.4.3 Renewable and bio-based polymers for packaging 43
- 2.4.4 Comparison of synthetic fossil-based and bio-based polymers 44
- 2.4.5 Processes for bioplastics in packaging 45
- 2.4.6 End-of-life treatment of bio-based and sustainable packaging 46
- 2.4.1 Polyolefins: Polypropylene and polyethylene 40
- 2.5 Synthetic bio-based packaging materials 48
- 2.5.1 Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA) 48
- 2.5.1.1 Overview 48
- 2.5.1.2 Properties 49
- 2.5.1.3 Applications 49
- 2.5.1.4 Commercial examples 52
- 2.5.2 Polyethylene terephthalate (Bio-PET) 52
- 2.5.2.1 Overview 52
- 2.5.2.2 Properties 53
- 2.5.2.3 Applications 53
- 2.5.2.4 Advantages of Bio-PET in Packaging 53
- 2.5.2.5 Challenges and Limitations 54
- 2.5.2.6 Commercial examples 55
- 2.5.3 Polytrimethylene terephthalate (Bio-PTT) 55
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- 2.5.3.1 Overview 55
- 2.5.3.2 Production Process 56
- 2.5.3.3 Properties 56
- 2.5.3.4 Applications 56
- 2.5.3.5 Advantages of Bio-PTT in Packaging 57
- 2.5.3.6 Challenges and Limitations 57
- 2.5.3.7 Commercial examples 58
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- 2.5.4 Polyethylene furanoate (Bio-PEF) 58
- 2.5.4.1 Overview 58
- 2.5.4.2 Properties 59
- 2.5.4.3 Applications 59
- 2.5.4.4 Advantages of Bio-PEF in Packaging 59
- 2.5.4.5 Challenges and Limitations 60
- 2.5.4.6 Commercial examples 60
- 2.5.5 Bio-PA 61
- 2.5.5.1 Overview 62
- 2.5.5.2 Properties 62
- 2.5.5.3 Applications in Packaging 62
- 2.5.5.4 Advantages of Bio-PA in Packaging 63
- 2.5.5.5 Challenges and Limitations 63
- 2.5.5.6 Commercial examples 63
- 2.5.6 Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (Bio-PBAT)- Aliphatic aromatic copolyesters 64
- 2.5.6.1 Overview 65
- 2.5.6.2 Properties 65
- 2.5.6.3 Applications in Packaging 65
- 2.5.6.4 Advantages of Bio-PBAT in Packaging 66
- 2.5.6.5 Challenges and Limitations 66
- 2.5.6.6 Commercial examples 66
- 2.5.7 Polybutylene succinate (PBS) and copolymers 68
- 2.5.7.1 Overview 68
- 2.5.7.2 Properties 68
- 2.5.7.3 Applications in Packaging 69
- 2.5.7.4 Advantages of Bio-PBS and Co-polymers in Packaging 69
- 2.5.7.5 Challenges and Limitations 69
- 2.5.7.6 Commercial examples 70
- 2.5.8 Polypropylene (Bio-PP) 70
- 2.5.8.1 Overview 71
- 2.5.8.2 Properties 71
- 2.5.8.3 Applications in Packaging 71
- 2.5.8.4 Advantages of Bio-PP in Packaging 71
- 2.5.8.5 Challenges and Limitations 72
- 2.5.8.6 Commercial examples 72
- 2.5.1 Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA) 48
- 2.6 Natural bio-based packaging materials 73
- 2.6.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) 73
- 2.6.1.1 Properties 74
- 2.6.1.2 Applications in Packaging 74
- 2.6.1.3 Advantages of PHA in Packaging 75
- 2.6.1.4 Challenges and Limitations 76
- 2.6.1.5 Commercial examples 76
- 2.6.2 Starch-based blends 77
- 2.6.2.1 Overview 77
- 2.6.2.2 Properties 77
- 2.6.2.3 Applications in Packaging 78
- 2.6.2.4 Advantages of Starch-Based Blends in Packaging 78
- 2.6.2.5 Challenges and Limitations 78
- 2.6.2.6 Commercial examples 78
- 2.6.3 Cellulose 80
- 2.6.3.1 Feedstocks 80
- 2.6.3.1.1 Wood 80
- 2.6.3.1.2 Plant 81
- 2.6.3.1.3 Tunicate 81
- 2.6.3.1.4 Algae 81
- 2.6.3.1.5 Bacteria 82
- 2.6.3.2 Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) 83
- 2.6.3.2.1 Properties 83
- 2.6.3.3 Nanocellulose 84
- 2.6.3.3.1 Cellulose nanocrystals 84
- 2.6.3.3.1.1 Applications in packaging 84
- 2.6.3.3.2 Cellulose nanofibers 85
- 2.6.3.3.2.1 Applications in packaging 86
- 2.6.3.3.3 Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNC) 92
- 2.6.3.3.3.1 Applications in packaging 94
- 2.6.3.3.1 Cellulose nanocrystals 84
- 2.6.3.4 Commercial examples 95
- 2.6.3.1 Feedstocks 80
- 2.6.4 Protein-based bioplastics in packaging 97
- 2.6.4.1 Feedstocks 97
- 2.6.4.2 Commercial examples 99
- 2.6.5 Lipids and waxes for packaging 100
- 2.6.5.1 Overview 101
- 2.6.5.2 Commercial examples 101
- 2.6.6 Seaweed-based packaging 102
- 2.6.6.1 Overview 102
- 2.6.6.2 Production 104
- 2.6.6.3 Applications in packaging 104
- 2.6.6.4 Producers 104
- 2.6.7 Mycelium 105
- 2.6.7.1 Overview 105
- 2.6.7.2 Applications in packaging 106
- 2.6.7.3 Commercial examples 107
- 2.6.8 Chitosan 109
- 2.6.8.1 Overview 109
- 2.6.8.2 Applications in packaging 110
- 2.6.8.3 Commercial examples 110
- 2.6.9 Bio-naphtha 112
- 2.6.9.1 Overview 112
- 2.6.9.2 Markets and applications 113
- 2.6.9.3 Commercial examples 114
- 2.6.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) 73
3 MARKETS AND APPLICATIONS 116
- 3.1 Paper and board packaging 116
- 3.2 Food packaging 118
- 3.2.1 Bio-Based films and trays 118
- 3.2.2 Bio-Based pouches and bags 119
- 3.2.3 Bio-Based textiles and nets 119
- 3.2.4 Bioadhesives 119
- 3.2.4.1 Starch 120
- 3.2.4.2 Cellulose 120
- 3.2.4.3 Protein-Based 121
- 3.2.5 Barrier coatings and films 121
- 3.2.5.1 Polysaccharides 122
- 3.2.5.1.1 Chitin 122
- 3.2.5.1.2 Chitosan 122
- 3.2.5.1.3 Starch 122
- 3.2.5.2 Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) 123
- 3.2.5.3 Poly(butylene Succinate) 123
- 3.2.5.4 Functional Lipid and Proteins Based Coatings 123
- 3.2.5.1 Polysaccharides 122
- 3.2.6 Active and Smart Food Packaging 124
- 3.2.6.1 Active Materials and Packaging Systems 124
- 3.2.6.2 Intelligent and Smart Food Packaging 125
- 3.2.7 Antimicrobial films and agents 126
- 3.2.7.1 Natural 127
- 3.2.7.2 Inorganic nanoparticles 127
- 3.2.7.3 Biopolymers 128
- 3.2.8 Bio-based Inks and Dyes 128
- 3.2.9 Edible films and coatings 129
- 3.2.9.1 Overview 129
- 3.2.9.2 Commercial examples 131
- 3.3 Biobased films and coatings in packaging 132
- 3.3.1 Overview 132
- 3.3.2 Challenges using bio-based paints and coatings 132
- 3.3.3 Types of bio-based coatings and films in packaging 135
- 3.3.3.1 Polyurethane coatings 135
- 3.3.3.1.1 Properties 135
- 3.3.3.1.2 Bio-based polyurethane coatings 135
- 3.3.3.1.3 Products 136
- 3.3.3.2 Acrylate resins 137
- 3.3.3.2.1 Properties 137
- 3.3.3.2.2 Bio-based acrylates 137
- 3.3.3.2.3 Products 138
- 3.3.3.3 Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA) 138
- 3.3.3.3.1 Properties 140
- 3.3.3.3.2 Bio-PLA coatings and films 140
- 3.3.3.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) coatings 140
- 3.3.3.5 Cellulose coatings and films 142
- 3.3.3.5.1 Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) 142
- 3.3.3.5.2 Cellulose nanofibers 142
- 3.3.3.5.2.1 Properties 142
- 3.3.3.5.2.2 Product developers 144
- 3.3.3.6 Lignin coatings 146
- 3.3.3.7 Protein-based biomaterials for coatings 146
- 3.3.3.7.1 Plant derived proteins 146
- 3.3.3.7.2 Animal origin proteins 147
- 3.3.3.1 Polyurethane coatings 135
- 3.4 Carbon capture derived materials for packaging 148
- 3.4.1 Benefits of carbon utilization for plastics feedstocks 149
- 3.4.2 CO₂-derived polymers and plastics 151
- 3.4.3 CO2 utilization products 152
4 GLOBAL MARKET FOR BIODEGRADABLE AND COMPOSTABLE PACKAGING (Tonnes) 154
- 4.1 Total 154
- 4.1.1 By product type 154
- 4.1.2 By end-use market 155
- 4.1.3 By region 156
- 4.2 Flexible packaging 157
- 4.3 Rigid packaging 159
- 4.4 Coatings and films 162
5 COMPANY PROFILES 164 (213 company profiles)
6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 328
7 REFERENCES 329
List of Tables
- Table 1. Global biodegradable and compostable packaging by product type, 2023-2035 (1,000 tonnes). 18
- Table 2. Global biodegradable and compostable packaging by end-use market, 2023-2035 (1,000 tonnes). 20
- Table 3. Global biodegradable and compostable packaging by region, 2023-2035 (1,000 tonnes). 21
- Table 4. Average annual prices by bioplastic type, 2024 (US$ per kg). 29
- Table 5. Market trends in bio-based and sustainable packaging 31
- Table 6. Drivers for recent growth in the Biodegradable and Compostable Packaging market. 33
- Table 7. Challenges for Biodegradable and Compostable Packaging. 36
- Table 8. Types of bio-based plastics and fossil-fuel-based plastics 39
- Table 9. Comparison of synthetic fossil-based and bio-based polymers. 45
- Table 10. Processes for bioplastics in packaging. 46
- Table 11. PLA properties for packaging applications. 49
- Table 12. Applications, advantages and disadvantages of PHAs in packaging. 74
- Table 13. Major polymers found in the extracellular covering of different algae. 82
- Table 14. Market overview for cellulose microfibers (microfibrillated cellulose) in paperboard and packaging-market age, key benefits, applications and producers. 83
- Table 15. Applications of nanocrystalline cellulose (CNC). 85
- Table 16. Market overview for cellulose nanofibers in packaging. 87
- Table 17. Types of protein based-bioplastics, applications and companies. 98
- Table 18. Overview of alginate-description, properties, application and market size. 103
- Table 19. Companies developing algal-based bioplastics. 105
- Table 20. Overview of mycelium fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 105
- Table 21. Overview of chitosan-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 109
- Table 22. Bio-based naphtha markets and applications. 113
- Table 23. Bio-naphtha market value chain. 113
- Table 24. Pros and cons of different type of food packaging materials. 118
- Table 25. Active Biodegradable Films films and their food applications. 125
- Table 26. Intelligent Biodegradable Films. 125
- Table 27. Edible films and coatings market summary. 129
- Table 28. Summary of barrier films and coatings for packaging. 133
- Table 29. Types of polyols. 135
- Table 30. Polyol producers. 136
- Table 31. Bio-based polyurethane coating products. 136
- Table 32. Bio-based acrylate resin products. 138
- Table 33. Polylactic acid (PLA) market analysis. 138
- Table 34. Commercially available PHAs. 141
- Table 35. Market overview for cellulose nanofibers in paints and coatings. 143
- Table 36. Companies developing cellulose nanofibers products in paints and coatings. 144
- Table 37. Types of protein based-biomaterials, applications and companies. 147
- Table 38. CO2 utilization and removal pathways. 149
- Table 39. CO2 utilization products developed by chemical and plastic producers. 152
- Table 40. Global biodegradable and compostable packaging by product type, 2023-2035 (1,000 tonnes). 154
- Table 41. Global biodegradable and compostable packaging by end-use market, 2023-2035 (1,000 tonnes). 155
- Table 42. Global biodegradable and compostable packaging by region, 2023-2035 (1,000 tonnes). 156
- Table 43. Comparison of bioplastics’ (PLA and PHAs) properties to other common polymers used in product packaging. 157
- Table 44. Typical applications for bioplastics in flexible packaging. 158
- Table 45. Typical applications for bioplastics in rigid packaging. 160
- Table 46. Market revenues for bio-based coatings, 2018-2035 (billions USD), high estimate. 163
- Table 47. Lactips plastic pellets. 258
- Table 48. Oji Holdings CNF products. 282
List of Figures
- Figure 1. Global packaging market by material type. 18
- Figure 2. Global biodegradable and compostable packaging by product type, 2023-2035 (1,000 tonnes). 19
- Figure 3. Global biodegradable and compostable packaging by end-use market, 2023-2035 (1,000 tonnes). 21
- Figure 4. Global biodegradable and compostable packaging by region, 2023-2035 (1,000 tonnes). 22
- Figure 5. Average annual prices by bioplastic type, 2024 (US$ per kg). 30
- Figure 6. Routes for synthesizing polymers from fossil-based and bio-based resources. 44
- Figure 7. LDPE film versus PLA, 2019–24 (USD/tonne). 49
- Figure 8. Organization and morphology of cellulose synthesizing terminal complexes (TCs) in different organisms. 80
- Figure 9. Biosynthesis of (a) wood cellulose (b) tunicate cellulose and (c) BC. 81
- Figure 10. Cellulose microfibrils and nanofibrils. 83
- Figure 11. TEM image of cellulose nanocrystals. 84
- Figure 12. CNC slurry. 85
- Figure 13. CNF gel. 86
- Figure 14. Bacterial nanocellulose shapes 93
- Figure 15. BLOOM masterbatch from Algix. 104
- Figure 16. Typical structure of mycelium-based foam. 106
- Figure 17. Commercial mycelium composite construction materials. 107
- Figure 18. Types of bio-based materials used for antimicrobial food packaging application. 127
- Figure 19. Schematic of gas barrier properties of nanoclay film. 133
- Figure 20. Hefcel-coated wood (left) and untreated wood (right) after 30 seconds flame test. 146
- Figure 21. Applications for CO2. 149
- Figure 22. Life cycle of CO2-derived products and services. 151
- Figure 23. Conversion pathways for CO2-derived polymeric materials 152
- Figure 24. Global biodegradable and compostable packaging by product type, 2023-2035 (1,000 tonnes). 155
- Figure 25. Global biodegradable and compostable packaging by end-use market, 2023-2035 (1,000 tonnes). 156
- Figure 26. Global biodegradable and compostable packaging by region, 2023-2035 (1,000 tonnes). 156
- Figure 27. Bioplastics for flexible packaging by bioplastic material type, 2019–2035 (‘000 tonnes). 159
- Figure 28. Bioplastics for rigid packaging by bioplastic material type, 2019–2035 (‘000 tonnes). 161
- Figure 29. Market revenues for bio-based coatings, 2018-2035 (billions USD), conservative estimate. 162
- Figure 30. Pluumo. 166
- Figure 31. Anpoly cellulose nanofiber hydrogel. 173
- Figure 32. MEDICELLU™. 174
- Figure 33. Asahi Kasei CNF fabric sheet. 180
- Figure 34. Properties of Asahi Kasei cellulose nanofiber nonwoven fabric. 181
- Figure 35. CNF nonwoven fabric. 182
- Figure 36. Passionfruit wrapped in Xgo Circular packaging. 187
- Figure 37. BIOLO e-commerce mailer bag made from PHA. 192
- Figure 38. Reusable and recyclable foodservice cups, lids, and straws from Joinease Hong Kong Ltd., made with plant-based NuPlastiQ BioPolymer from BioLogiQ, Inc. 193
- Figure 39. Fiber-based screw cap. 202
- Figure 40. CJ CheilJedang's biodegradable PHA-based wrapper for shipping products. 212
- Figure 41. CuanSave film. 215
- Figure 42. ELLEX products. 217
- Figure 43. CNF-reinforced PP compounds. 218
- Figure 44. Kirekira! toilet wipes. 218
- Figure 45. Rheocrysta spray. 222
- Figure 46. DKS CNF products. 222
- Figure 47. Photograph (a) and micrograph (b) of mineral/ MFC composite showing the high viscosity and fibrillar structure. 232
- Figure 48. PHA production process. 237
- Figure 49. AVAPTM process. 241
- Figure 50. GreenPower+™ process. 241
- Figure 51. Cutlery samples (spoon, knife, fork) made of nano cellulose and biodegradable plastic composite materials. 244
- Figure 52. CNF gel. 246
- Figure 53. Block nanocellulose material. 246
- Figure 54. CNF products developed by Hokuetsu. 247
- Figure 55. Kami Shoji CNF products. 252
- Figure 56. IPA synthesis method. 268
- Figure 57. Compostable water pod. 277
- Figure 58. XCNF. 292
- Figure 59: Innventia AB movable nanocellulose demo plant. 293
- Figure 60. Shellworks packaging containers. 297
- Figure 61. Thales packaging incorporating Fibrease. 303
- Figure 62. Sulapac cosmetics containers. 305
- Figure 63. Sulzer equipment for PLA polymerization processing. 306
- Figure 64. Silver / CNF composite dispersions. 313
- Figure 65. CNF/nanosilver powder. 313
- Figure 66. Corbion FDCA production process. 315
- Figure 67. UPM biorefinery process. 317
- Figure 68. Vegea production process. 320
- Figure 69. Worn Again products. 323
- Figure 70. S-CNF in powder form. 325
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