The Global Market for Sustainable Chemicals 2025-2035

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Published: October 2024
Pages: 1,166
Tables: 357
Figures: 152

The new era of chemicals represents a paradigm shift in the chemical industry, driven by the need for sustainability, technological advancements, and changing market demands. This transformation is characterized by a move away from fossil-based feedstocks towards renewable and circular resources, coupled with innovative production methods that minimize environmental impact. Key aspects of this new era include:

Sustainable Feedstocks: Utilization of biomass, CO2, and waste materials as raw materials for chemical production, reducing dependence on fossil resources.
Green Chemistry: Application of principles that reduce or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous substances in chemical processes.
Circular Economy: Design of chemical products and processes for reuse, recycling, and upcycling, minimizing waste and maximizing resource efficiency.
Electrification: Integration of renewable electricity in chemical processes, including electrocatalysis and electrochemical synthesis.
Digitalization: Use of AI, machine learning, and advanced analytics to optimize processes and accelerate innovation.

Technology areas covered in this new era include:

Biorefining: Converting biomass into a spectrum of valuable chemicals and materials.
CO2 Utilization: Capturing and converting CO2 into chemicals, fuels, and materials.
Advanced Catalysis: Developing highly selective and efficient catalysts for sustainable processes.
Synthetic Biology: Engineering microorganisms to produce chemicals from renewable feedstocks.
Flow Chemistry: Continuous manufacturing processes for improved efficiency and control.
Additive Manufacturing: 3D printing of chemicals and materials for customized production.
Advanced Materials: Developing sustainable, high-performance materials like bioplastics and advanced composites.
Green Solvents: Creating bio-based and low-impact solvents to replace harmful traditional solvents.
Process Intensification: Designing more compact, efficient, and integrated chemical processes.
Waste Valorization: Converting waste streams into valuable chemicals and materials.
Artificial Intelligence in Chemical Design: The use of AI and machine learning for molecular design, process optimization, and predictive modeling is becoming a significant market area in chemical innovation.
Personalized Chemistry: This includes the development of customized chemicals and materials for personalized medicine, cosmetics, and other consumer products.
Quantum Chemistry: Although still emerging, this field uses quantum mechanical principles to develop new materials and chemical processes, potentially revolutionizing various industries.

This new era of chemicals is not just about individual technologies but their integration into holistic, sustainable chemical value chains. It promises to deliver innovative solutions to global challenges while creating new economic opportunities and reducing the environmental footprint of the chemical industry. This report analyzes the sustainable chemicals market, offering insights into trends, technologies, and market opportunities from 2025 to 2035. Report contents include:

Market Drivers and Trends
Sustainable Feedstocks and Green Chemistry
Circular Economy in the Chemical Industry
Emerging Technologies and Manufacturing Processes
- Electrification of chemical processes
- Digitalization and Industry 4.0 applications
- Advanced manufacturing technologies
- Biorefining and industrial biotechnology
- CO2 utilization technologies
- Advanced catalysts
- Synthetic biology and metabolic engineering
Market Segments and Applications:
- Sustainable materials and polymers
- Green solvents and process chemicals
- Sustainable agriculture chemicals
- Renewable energy technologies
- Sustainable construction materials
- Green cosmetics and personal care products
- Sustainable packaging
- Eco-friendly paints and coatings
- Green electronics
- Sustainable textiles and fibers
- Alternative fuels and lubricants
- Pharmaceuticals and healthcare applications
- Water treatment and purification solutions
- Carbon capture and utilization products
- Industrial biotechnology products
- Advanced materials for 3D printing
Regulatory Landscape and Policy Analysis
Economic Aspects and Business Models
Future Outlook and Emerging Trends
Company Profiles and Competitive Landscape-profiles of over 1,000 key players in the sustainable chemicals market, analyzing their strategies, products, and market positions. Companies profiled include Aanika Biosciences, ACCUREC-Recycling GmbH, Aduro Clean Technologies, Aemetis, Agra Energy, Agilyx, Air Company, Aircela, Algenol, Allozymes, Alpha Biofuels, AM Green, Amyris, Andritz, APChemi, Apeiron Bioenergy, Aperam BioEnergia, Applied Research Associates (ARA), Aralez Bio, Arcadia eFuels, Ascend Elements, ASB Biodiesel, Atmonia, Avalon BioEnergy, Avantium, Avioxx, BANiQL, BASF, BBCA Biochemical & GALACTIC Lactic Acid, BBGI, BDI-BioEnergy International, BEE Biofuel, Benefuel, Bio2Oil, Bio-Oils, Biofibre GmbH, Bioform Technologies, Biofine Technology, Biofy, BiogasClean, BIOD Energy, Biojet, Biokemik, BIOLO, BioLogiQ, Inc., Biome Bioplastics, Biomass Resin Holdings Co., Ltd., Biomatter, BIO-FED, BIO-LUTIONS International AG, Bioplastech Ltd, BioSmart Nano, BIOTEC GmbH & Co. KG, Biovectra, Biovox GmbH, BlockTexx Pty Ltd., Bloom Biorenewables, Blue BioFuels, Blue Ocean Closures, BlueAlp Technology, Bluepha Beijing Lanjing Microbiology Technology Co., Ltd., BOBST, Borealis AG, Braskem, Braven Environmental, Brightmark Energy, Brightplus Oy, bse Methanol, BTG Bioliquids, Bucha Bio, Business Innovation Partners Co., Ltd., Buyo, Byogy Renewables, C1 Green Chemicals, Caphenia, Carbiolice, Carbios, Carbonade, CarbonBridge, Carbon Collect, Carbon Engineering, Carbon Infinity, Carbon Neutral Fuels, Carbon Recycling International, Carbon Sink, Carbyon, Cardia Bioplastics Ltd., CARAPAC Company, Cargill, Cascade Biocatalysts, Cass Materials Pty Ltd, Cassandra Oil, Casterra Ag, Celanese Corporation, Celtic Renewables, Cellugy, Cellutech AB (Stora Enso), Cereal Process Technologies (CPT), CERT Systems, CF Industries Holdings, Chemkey Advanced Materials Technology (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Chemol Company (Seydel), Chitose Bio Evolution, Circla Nordic, Cirba Solutions, CJ Biomaterials, Inc., CleanJoule, Climeworks, Coastgrass ApS, CNF Biofuel, Concord Blue Engineering, Constructive Bio, Cool Planet Energy Systems, Corumat, Inc., Corsair Group International, Coval Energy, Crimson Renewable Energy, Cruz Foam, Cryotech, CuanTec Ltd., Cyclic Materials, C-Zero, Daicel Polymer Ltd., Daio Paper Corporation, Danimer Scientific, D-CRBN, Debut Biotechnology, DIC Corporation, DIC Products, Inc., Diamond Green Diesel, Dimensional Energy, Dioxide Materials, Dioxycle, DKS Co. Ltd., Domsjö Fabriker, Dow, Inc., DuFor Resins B.V., DuPont, Earthodic Pty Ltd., EarthForm, EcoCeres, Eco Environmental, Eco Fuel Technology, Ecomann Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Ecoshell, Electro-Active Technologies, Eligo Bioscience, Enim, Enginzyme AB, Enzymit, Erebagen, EV Biotech, eversyn, Evolutor, FabricNano, FlexSea, Floreon, Gevo, Ginkgo Bioworks, Heraeus Remloy, HyProMag, Hyfé, Invizyne Technologies, JPM Silicon GmbH, LanzaTech, Librec AG, Lygos, MagREEsource, Mammoth Biosciences, MetaCycler BioInnovations, Mi Terro, NeoMetals, Noveon Magnetics, Novozymes A/S, NTx, Origin Materials, Phoenix Tailings, PlantSwitch, Posco, Pow.bio, Protein Evolution, REEtec, Rivalia Chemical, Samsara Eco, SiTration, Solugen, Sumitomo and Summit Nanotech, Synthego, Taiwan Bio-Manufacturing Corp. (TBMC), Teijin Limited, Twist Bioscience, Uluu, Van Heron Labs, Verde Bioresins, Versalis, Xampla and more....
Market Forecasts and Data Analysis

This report is relevant for:

Chemical industry executives and strategists
Sustainability officers and environmental managers
Investors and financial analysts
R&D professionals
Policy makers and regulatory bodies
Environmental NGOs
Academic researchers

Download Table of Contents (PDF)

1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 51

1.1 The Need for a New Era in the Chemical Industry 51
1.2 Defining the New Era of Chemicals 53
1.3 Global Drivers and Trends 54
1.4 The Changing Landscape of the Chemical Industry 55
- 1.4.1 Historical Context: From Coal to Oil to Renewables 55
- 1.4.2 Current State of the Global Chemical Industry 56
- 1.4.3 Environmental Challenges and Regulatory Pressures 58
- 1.4.4 Shifting Consumer Demands and Market Dynamics 59
- 1.4.5 The Role of Digitalization and Industry 4.0 60
1.5 Emerging and Transforming Markets in the New Era of Chemicals 61
- 1.5.1 Sustainable Agriculture Chemicals 61
- 1.5.2 Green Cosmetics and Personal Care 62
- 1.5.3 Sustainable Packaging 63
- 1.5.4 Eco-friendly Paints and Coatings 64
- 1.5.5 Alternative Fuels and Lubricants 65
- 1.5.6 Pharmaceuticals and Healthcare 66
- 1.5.7 Water Treatment and Purification 67
- 1.5.8 Carbon Capture and Utilization Products 67
- 1.5.9 Advanced Materials for 3D Printing 67
- 1.5.10 Sustainable Mining and Metallurgy 69

2 FEEDSTOCKS 70

2.1 Sustainable Feedstocks: The Foundation of the New Era 70
2.2 Overview of Sustainable Feedstock Options 72
2.3 Biomass as a Chemical Feedstock 73
- 2.3.1 Types of Biomass and Their Chemical Compositions 73
- 2.3.2 Pretreatment and Conversion Technologies 74
- 2.3.3 Challenges in Scaling Up Biomass Utilization 76
2.4 CO2 as a Carbon Source 77
- 2.4.1 CO2 Capture Technologies 77
- 2.4.2 Chemical Conversion Pathways for CO2 79
- 2.4.3 Economic and Technical Barriers to CO2 Utilization 82
2.5 Waste Valorization 83
- 2.5.1 Municipal Solid Waste as a Feedstock 83
- 2.5.2 Industrial Waste Streams and By-products 85
- 2.5.3 Plastic Waste Recycling and Upcycling 86
2.6 Renewable Hydrogen 87
- 2.6.1 Electrolysis Technologies 87
- 2.6.2 Integration of Renewable Energy in Hydrogen Production 89
- 2.6.3 Hydrogen's Role in Chemical Synthesis 90

3 GREEN CHEMISTRY PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS 91

3.1 The 12 Principles of Green Chemistry 91
3.2 Atom Economy and Step Economy in Synthesis 93
3.3 Solvent Reduction and Green Solvents 95
- 3.3.1 Water as a Reaction Medium 95
- 3.3.2 Ionic Liquids and Deep Eutectic Solvents 96
- 3.3.3 Supercritical Fluids in Chemical Processes 97
3.4 Catalysis for Green Chemistry 101
- 3.4.1 Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering 101
- 3.4.2 Heterogeneous Catalysis Advancements 102
- 3.4.3 Photocatalysis and Electrocatalysis 103
3.5 Green Metrics and Life Cycle Assessment in Chemistry 106

4 CIRCULAR ECONOMY IN THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 108

4.1 Principles of Circular Economy 108
4.2 Design for Circularity in Chemical Products 109
4.3 Chemical Recycling Technologies 110
- 4.3.1 Applications 110
- 4.3.2 Pyrolysis 111
  - 4.3.2.1 Non-catalytic 112
  - 4.3.2.2 Catalytic 113
    - 4.3.2.2.1 Polystyrene pyrolysis 116
    - 4.3.2.2.2 Pyrolysis for production of bio fuel 116
    - 4.3.2.2.3 Used tires pyrolysis 120
      - 4.3.2.2.3.1 Conversion to biofuel 121
    - 4.3.2.2.4 Co-pyrolysis of biomass and plastic wastes 122
  - 4.3.2.3 Companies and capacities 123
- 4.3.3 Gasification 124
  - 4.3.3.1 Technology overview 124
    - 4.3.3.1.1 Syngas conversion to methanol 125
    - 4.3.3.1.2 Biomass gasification and syngas fermentation 129
    - 4.3.3.1.3 Biomass gasification and syngas thermochemical conversion 129
  - 4.3.3.2 Companies and capacities (current and planned) 130
- 4.3.4 Dissolution 130
  - 4.3.4.1 Technology overview 130
  - 4.3.4.2 Companies and capacities (current and planned) 131
- 4.3.5 Depolymerisation 132
  - 4.3.5.1 Hydrolysis 134
    - 4.3.5.1.1 Technology overview 134
  - 4.3.5.2 Enzymolysis 135
    - 4.3.5.2.1 Technology overview 135
  - 4.3.5.3 Methanolysis 136
    - 4.3.5.3.1 Technology overview 136
  - 4.3.5.4 Glycolysis 137
    - 4.3.5.4.1 Technology overview 137
  - 4.3.5.5 Aminolysis 140
    - 4.3.5.5.1 Technology overview 140
  - 4.3.5.6 Companies and capacities (current and planned) 140
- 4.3.6 Other advanced chemical recycling technologies 141
  - 4.3.6.1 Hydrothermal cracking 141
  - 4.3.6.2 Pyrolysis with in-line reforming 142
  - 4.3.6.3 Microwave-assisted pyrolysis 143
  - 4.3.6.4 Plasma pyrolysis 143
  - 4.3.6.5 Plasma gasification 144
  - 4.3.6.6 Supercritical fluids 145
4.4 Upcycling of Chemical Waste 145
4.5 Circular Business Models in the Chemical Sector 146
4.6 Challenges and Opportunities in Implementing Circularity 147
- 4.6.1 Companies 148

5 ELECTRIFICATION OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES 152

5.1 The Role of Renewable Electricity in Chemical Production 152
5.2 Electrochemical Synthesis 156
- 5.2.1 Electroorganic Synthesis 156
- 5.2.2 Electrochemical CO2 Reduction 158
- 5.2.3 Electrochemical Nitrogen Fixation 159
5.3 Plasma Chemistry 160
5.4 Microwave-Assisted Chemistry 161
5.5 Integration of Power-to-X Technologies in Chemical Production 161

6 DIGITALIZATION AND INDUSTRY 4.0 IN CHEMISTRY 163

6.1 Big Data and Advanced Analytics in Chemical Research 163
6.2 Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Applications 164
- 6.2.1 In Silico Design of Molecules and Materials 164
- 6.2.2 Process Optimization and Predictive Maintenance 165
- 6.2.3 Automated Synthesis and High-Throughput Experimentation 167
6.3 Digital Twins in Chemical Plant Operations 168
6.4 Blockchain for Supply Chain Transparency and Traceability 170
6.5 Cybersecurity Challenges in the Digitalized Chemical Industry 171

7 ADVANCED MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGIES 172

7.1 Continuous Flow Chemistry 174
- 7.1.1 Microreactors and Process Intensification 174
- 7.1.2 Advantages in Pharmaceuticals and Fine Chemicals 175
- 7.1.3 Challenges in Scale-up and Implementation 176
7.2 Modular and Distributed Manufacturing 178
7.3 3D Printing of Chemicals and Materials 180
- 7.3.1 Direct Ink Writing and Reactive Printing 180
- 7.3.2 Applications in Custom Synthesis and Formulation 181
7.4 Advanced Process Control and Real-time Monitoring 182
7.5 Flexible and Adaptable Production Systems 183

8 BIOREFINDING AND INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY 184

8.1 Biorefinery Concepts and Configurations 184
8.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass Processing 185
8.3 Algal Biorefineries 186
8.4 Upstream Processing 187
- 8.4.1 Cell Culture 187
  - 8.4.1.1 Overview 187
  - 8.4.1.2 Types of Cell Culture Systems 187
  - 8.4.1.3 Factors Affecting Cell Culture Performance 188
  - 8.4.1.4 Advances in Cell Culture Technology 189
    - 8.4.1.4.1 Single-use systems 189
    - 8.4.1.4.2 Process analytical technology (PAT) 189
    - 8.4.1.4.3 Cell line development 190
8.5 Fermentation 190
- 8.5.1 Overview 190
  - 8.5.1.1 Types of Fermentation Processes 190
  - 8.5.1.2 Factors Affecting Fermentation Performance 191
  - 8.5.1.3 Advances in Fermentation Technology 191
    - 8.5.1.3.1 High-cell-density fermentation 192
    - 8.5.1.3.2 Continuous processing 192
    - 8.5.1.3.3 Metabolic engineering 192
8.6 Downstream Processing 193
- 8.6.1 Purification 193
  - 8.6.1.1 Overview 193
  - 8.6.1.2 Types of Purification Methods 193
    - 8.6.1.2.1 Factors Affecting Purification Performance 193
  - 8.6.1.3 Advances in Purification Technology 194
    - 8.6.1.3.1 Affinity chromatography 194
    - 8.6.1.3.2 Membrane chromatography 195
    - 8.6.1.3.3 Continuous chromatography 195
8.7 Formulation 196
- 8.7.1 Overview 196
  - 8.7.1.1 Types of Formulation Methods 196
  - 8.7.1.2 Factors Affecting Formulation Performance 197
  - 8.7.1.3 Advances in Formulation Technology 197
    - 8.7.1.3.1 Controlled release 198
    - 8.7.1.3.2 Nanoparticle formulation 198
    - 8.7.1.3.3 3D printing 198
8.8 Bioprocess Development 198
- 8.8.1 Scale-up 198
  - 8.8.1.1 Overview 198
  - 8.8.1.2 Factors Affecting Scale-up Performance 199
  - 8.8.1.3 Scale-up Strategies 200
- 8.8.2 Optimization 200
  - 8.8.2.1 Overview 201
  - 8.8.2.2 Factors Affecting Optimization Performance 201
  - 8.8.2.3 Optimization Strategies 202
8.9 Analytical Methods 203
- 8.9.1 Quality Control 203
  - 8.9.1.1 Overview 203
  - 8.9.1.2 Types of Quality Control Tests 203
  - 8.9.1.3 Factors Affecting Quality Control Performance 204
- 8.9.2 Characterization 204
  - 8.9.2.1 Overview 205
  - 8.9.2.2 Types of Characterization Methods 205
  - 8.9.2.3 Factors Affecting Characterization Performance 206
8.10 Scale of Production 208
- 8.10.1 Laboratory Scale 208
  - 8.10.1.1 Overview 208
  - 8.10.1.2 Scale and Equipment 208
  - 8.10.1.3 Advantages 209
  - 8.10.1.4 Disadvantages 209
- 8.10.2 Pilot Scale 210
  - 8.10.2.1 Overview 210
  - 8.10.2.2 Scale and Equipment 210
  - 8.10.2.3 Advantages 211
  - 8.10.2.4 Disadvantages 211
- 8.10.3 Commercial Scale 212
  - 8.10.3.1 Overview 212
  - 8.10.3.2 Scale and Equipment 212
  - 8.10.3.3 Advantages 213
  - 8.10.3.4 Disadvantages 213
8.11 Mode of Operation 214
- 8.11.1 Batch Production 214
  - 8.11.1.1 Overview 214
  - 8.11.1.2 Advantages 215
  - 8.11.1.3 Disadvantages 215
  - 8.11.1.4 Applications 216
- 8.11.2 Fed-batch Production 216
  - 8.11.2.1 Overview 216
  - 8.11.2.2 Advantages 217
  - 8.11.2.3 Disadvantages 217
  - 8.11.2.4 Applications 217
- 8.11.3 Continuous Production 218
  - 8.11.3.1 Overview 218
  - 8.11.3.2 Advantages 218
  - 8.11.3.3 Disadvantages 218
  - 8.11.3.4 Applications 219
- 8.11.4 Cell factories for biomanufacturing 219
- 8.11.5 Perfusion Culture 221
  - 8.11.5.1 Overview 221
  - 8.11.5.2 Advantages 221
  - 8.11.5.3 Disadvantages 222
  - 8.11.5.4 Applications 222
- 8.11.6 Other Modes of Operation 223
  - 8.11.6.1 Immobilized Cell Culture 223
  - 8.11.6.2 Two-Stage Production 223
  - 8.11.6.3 Hybrid Systems 223
8.12 Host Organisms 224

9 CO2 UTILIZATION TECHNOLOGIES 226

9.1 Overview 226
9.2 CO2 non-conversion and conversion technology 227
9.3 Carbon utilization business models 233
- 9.3.1 Benefits of carbon utilization 234
- 9.3.2 Market challenges 236
9.4 Co2 utilization pathways 237
9.5 Conversion processes 239
- 9.5.1 Thermochemical 239
  - 9.5.1.1 Process overview 240
  - 9.5.1.2 Plasma-assisted CO2 conversion 242
- 9.5.2 Electrochemical conversion of CO2 243
  - 9.5.2.1 Process overview 244
- 9.5.3 Photocatalytic and photothermal catalytic conversion of CO2 247
- 9.5.4 Catalytic conversion of CO2 247
- 9.5.5 Biological conversion of CO2 247
- 9.5.6 Copolymerization of CO2 251
- 9.5.7 Mineral carbonation 253
9.6 CO2-derived products 258
- 9.6.1 Fuels 258
  - 9.6.1.1 Overview 259
  - 9.6.1.2 Production routes 261
  - 9.6.1.3 CO₂ -fuels in road vehicles 262
  - 9.6.1.4 CO₂ -fuels in shipping 263
    - 9.6.1.5 CO₂ -fuels in aviation 263
  - 9.6.1.6 Power-to-methane 263
    - 9.6.1.6.1 Biological fermentation 264
    - 9.6.1.6.2 Costs 264
  - 9.6.1.7 Algae based biofuels 268
  - 9.6.1.8 CO₂-fuels from solar 269
  - 9.6.1.9 Companies 271
  - 9.6.1.10 Challenges 274
- 9.6.2 Chemicals and polymers 274
  - 9.6.2.1 Polycarbonate from CO₂ 275
  - 9.6.2.2 Carbon nanostructures 276
  - 9.6.2.3 Scalability 278
  - 9.6.2.4 Applications 278
    - 9.6.2.4.1 Urea production 278
    - 9.6.2.4.2 CO₂-derived polymers 279
    - 9.6.2.4.3 Inert gas in semiconductor manufacturing 280
    - 9.6.2.4.4 Carbon nanotubes 280
  - 9.6.2.5 Companies 280
- 9.6.3 Construction materials 282
  - 9.6.3.1 Overview 283
  - 9.6.3.2 CCUS technologies 286
  - 9.6.3.3 Carbonated aggregates 288
  - 9.6.3.4 Additives during mixing 290
  - 9.6.3.5 Concrete curing 291
  - 9.6.3.6 Costs 292
  - 9.6.3.7 Market trends and business models 292
  - 9.6.3.8 Companies 296
  - 9.6.3.9 Challenges 297
- 9.6.4 CO2 Utilization in Biological Yield-Boosting 298
  - 9.6.4.1 Overview 298
  - 9.6.4.2 Applications 298
    - 9.6.4.2.1 Greenhouses 298
    - 9.6.4.2.2 Algae cultivation 298
      - 9.6.4.2.2.1 CO₂-enhanced algae cultivation: open systems 299
      - 9.6.4.2.2.2 CO₂-enhanced algae cultivation: closed systems 300
    - 9.6.4.2.3 Microbial conversion 301
    - 9.6.4.2.4 Food and feed production 303
  - 9.6.4.3 Companies 303
9.7 CO₂ Utilization in Enhanced Oil Recovery 304
- 9.7.1 Overview 304
  - 9.7.1.1 Process 305
  - 9.7.1.2 CO₂ sources 306
- 9.7.2 CO₂-EOR facilities and projects 306
- 9.7.3 Challenges 308
9.8 Enhanced mineralization 308
- 9.8.1 Advantages 308
- 9.8.2 In situ and ex-situ mineralization 309
- 9.8.3 Enhanced mineralization pathways 310
- 9.8.4 Challenges 311

10 ADVANCED CATALYSTS FOR SUSTAINABLE CHEMISTRY 312

10.1 Overview of biocatalyst technology 312
- 10.1.1 Biotransformations 313
- 10.1.2 Cascade biocatalysis 313
- 10.1.3 Co-factor recycling 313
- 10.1.4 Immobilization 314
10.2 Types of biocatalysts 315
- 10.2.1 Enzymes 316
- 10.2.2 Feedstocks 318
- 10.2.3 Protein/Enzyme Engineering 319
- 10.2.4 Microorganisms 320
  - 10.2.4.1 Bacteria 321
  - 10.2.4.2 Fungi 321
  - 10.2.4.3 Yeast 322
  - 10.2.4.4 Archaea 324
- 10.2.5 Engineered biocatalysts 325
  - 10.2.5.1 Directed Evolution 325
  - 10.2.5.2 Rational Design 326
  - 10.2.5.3 Semi-Rational Design 327
  - 10.2.5.4 Immobilization 328
  - 10.2.5.5 Fusion Proteins 328
- 10.2.6 Other types 330
  - 10.2.6.1 Ribozymes 330
  - 10.2.6.2 DNAzymes 331
  - 10.2.6.3 Abzymes 332
  - 10.2.6.4 Nanozymes 333
  - 10.2.6.5 Organocatalysts 334
10.3 Production methods and processes 335
- 10.3.1 Fermentation 336
- 10.3.2 Recombinant DNA technology 339
- 10.3.3 Cell-Free Protein Synthesis 340
- 10.3.4 Extraction from Natural Sources 341
- 10.3.5 Solid-State Fermentation 342
10.4 Emerging technologies and innovations in biocatalysis 343
- 10.4.1 Synthetic biology and metabolic engineering 343
  - 10.4.1.1 Batch biomanufacturing 349
  - 10.4.1.2 Continuous biomanufacturing 350
  - 10.4.1.3 Fermentation Processes 351
  - 10.4.1.4 Cell-free synthesis 351
- 10.4.2 Generative biology and Artificial Intelligence (AI) 354
  - 10.4.2.1 Molecular Dynamics Simulations 354
  - 10.4.2.2 Quantum Mechanical Calculations 355
  - 10.4.2.3 Systems Biology Modeling 356
  - 10.4.2.4 Metabolic Engineering Modeling 356
- 10.4.3 Genome engineering 358
- 10.4.4 Immobilization and encapsulation techniques 360
- 10.4.5 Biomimetics 361
- 10.4.6 Nanoparticle-based biocatalysts 362
- 10.4.7 Biocatalytic cascades and multi-enzyme systems 364
- 10.4.8 Microfluidics 365
10.5 Companies 368

11 SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY AND METABOLIC ENGINEERING 372

11.1 Metabolic engineering 372
11.2 Gene and DNA synthesis 376
11.3 Gene Synthesis and Assembly 377
11.4 Genome engineering 379
- 11.4.1 CRISPR 379
  - 11.4.1.1 CRISPR/Cas9-modified biosynthetic pathways 380
  - 11.4.1.2 TALENs 381
  - 11.4.1.3 ZFNs 381
11.5 Protein/Enzyme Engineering 383
11.6 Synthetic genomics 385
- 11.6.1 Principles of Synthetic Genomics 385
- 11.6.2 Synthetic Chromosomes and Genomes 386
11.7 Strain construction and optimization 388
11.8 Smart bioprocessing 388
11.9 Chassis organisms 389
11.10 Biomimetics 391
11.11 Sustainable materials 392
11.12 Robotics and automation 392
- 11.12.1 Robotic cloud laboratories 393
- 11.12.2 Automating organism design 393
- 11.12.3 Artificial intelligence and machine learning 394
11.13 Bioinformatics and computational tools 394
- 11.13.1 Role of Bioinformatics in Synthetic Biology 394
- 11.13.2 Computational Tools for Design and Analysis 395
11.14 Xenobiology and expanded genetic alphabets 398
11.15 Biosensors and bioelectronics 398
11.16 Feedstocks 399
- 11.16.1 C1 feedstocks 403
  - 11.16.1.1 Advantages 403
  - 11.16.1.2 Pathways 404
  - 11.16.1.3 Challenges 405
  - 11.16.1.4 Non-methane C1 feedstocks 405
  - 11.16.1.5 Gas fermentation 406
- 11.16.2 C2 feedstocks 406
- 11.16.3 Biological conversion of CO2 407
- 11.16.4 Food processing wastes 410
  - 11.16.4.1 Syngas 411
  - 11.16.4.2 Glycerol 411
  - 11.16.4.3 Methane 411
  - 11.16.4.4 Municipal solid wastes 415
  - 11.16.4.5 Plastic wastes 415
  - 11.16.4.6 Plant oils 416
  - 11.16.4.7 Starch 416
  - 11.16.4.8 Sugars 417
  - 11.16.4.9 Used cooking oils 418
  - 11.16.4.10 Green hydrogen production 419
  - 11.16.4.11 Blue hydrogen production 420
- 11.16.5 Marine biotechnology 422
  - 11.16.5.1 Cyanobacteria 424
  - 11.16.5.2 Macroalgae 425
11.17 Companies 425

12 GREEN SOLVENTS AND ALTERNATIVE REACTION MEDIA 428

12.1 Bio-based Solvents 428
12.2 Switchable Solvents 430
12.3 Deep Eutectic Solvents (DES) 431
12.4 Supercritical Fluids in Industrial Applications 433
12.5 Solvent-free Reactions and Mechanochemistry 435
12.6 Solvent Selection Tools and Frameworks 436
12.7 Companies 436

13 WASTE VALORIZATION AND RESOURCE RECOVERY 437

13.1 Municipal Solid Waste to Chemicals 437
13.2 Agricultural and Food Waste Valorization 439
13.3 Critical Material Extraction Technology 441
- 13.3.1 Recovery of critical materials from secondary sources (e.g., end-of-life products, industrial waste) 445
- 13.3.2 Critical rare-earth element recovery from secondary sources 445
- 13.3.3 Li-ion battery technology metal recovery 446
- 13.3.4 Critical semiconductor materials recovery 448
- 13.3.5 Critical semiconductor materials recovery 448
- 13.3.6 Critical platinum group metal recovery 450
- 13.3.7 Critical platinum Group metal recovery 451
13.4 Wastewater Treatment and Resource Recovery 453
- 13.4.1 Bio-based Flocculants and Coagulants 453
- 13.4.2 Green Oxidants and Disinfectants 454
- 13.4.3 Sustainable Membrane Materials 455
  - 13.4.3.1 Bio-based polymer membranes 455
  - 13.4.3.2 Ceramic membranes from recycled materials 456
  - 13.4.3.3 Self-healing membranes 457
- 13.4.4 Advanced Adsorbents for Contaminant Removal 458
  - 13.4.4.1 Biochar 459
  - 13.4.4.2 Activated carbon from waste biomass 460
  - 13.4.4.3 Green zeolites and MOFs (Metal-Organic Frameworks) 461
- 13.4.5 Nutrient Recovery Technologies 462
- 13.4.6 Resource Recovery from Industrial Wastewater 464
- 13.4.7 Bioelectrochemical Systems 465
- 13.4.8 Green Solvents in Extraction Processes 467
- 13.4.9 Photocatalytic Materials 469
- 13.4.10 Biodegradable Chelating Agents 471
- 13.4.11 Biocatalysts for Wastewater Treatment 473
- 13.4.12 Advanced Adsorption Materials 475
- 13.4.13 Sustainable pH Adjustment Chemicals 477
13.5 Mining Waste Valorization 478
- 13.5.1 Bioleaching and Biooxidation 478
- 13.5.2 Green Lixiviants for Metal Extraction 480
- 13.5.3 Phytomining and Phytoremediation 481
- 13.5.4 Sustainable Flotation Chemicals 483
- 13.5.5 Electrochemical Recovery Methods 485
- 13.5.6 Geopolymers and Mine Tailings Utilization 487
- 13.5.7 Critical Element Recovery 489
- 13.5.8 CO2 Mineralization 491
- 13.5.9 Sustainable Remediation Technologies 494
- 13.5.10 Waste-to-Energy Technologies 495
- 13.5.11 Advanced Separation Techniques 497
13.6 Companies 499

14 ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND RENEWABLE ENERGY INTEGRATION 504

14.1 Energy Efficiency Measures in Chemical Plants 504
14.2 Heat Recovery and Pinch Analysis 507
14.3 Renewable Energy Sources in Chemical Production 509
14.4 Energy Storage Technologies for Process Industries 511
14.5 Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Systems 513
14.6 Industrial Symbiosis and Energy Integration 515

15 SAFETY AND SUSTAINABILITY ASSESSMENT 517

15.1 Green Chemistry Metrics and Sustainability Indicators 517
15.2 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) in Chemical Processes 519
15.3 Safety by Design Principles 521
15.4 Risk Assessment and Management in New Chemical Technologies 523
15.5 Environmental Impact Assessment 525
15.6 Social and Ethical Considerations in the New Era of Chemicals 527

16 REGULATIONS AND POLICY 529

16.1 Global Chemical Regulations and Their Evolution 529
16.2 Environmental Policies Driving Sustainable Chemistry 531
16.3 Incentives and Support Mechanisms for Green Chemistry 533
16.4 Challenges in Regulating Emerging Technologies 534
16.5 International Cooperation and Harmonization Efforts 537
16.6 The Role of Industry Associations and Standardization Bodies 539

17 MARKETS AND PRODUCTS 541

17.1 Sustainable Materials and Polymers 541
- 17.1.1 Bioplastics and Biodegradable Polymers 542
  - 17.1.1.1 Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA) 542
    - 17.1.1.1.1 Overview 542
    - 17.1.1.1.2 Properties 543
    - 17.1.1.1.3 Applications 543
    - 17.1.1.1.4 Advantages 544
    - 17.1.1.1.5 Commercial examples 545
  - 17.1.1.2 Polyethylene terephthalate (Bio-PET) 545
    - 17.1.1.2.1 Overview 545
    - 17.1.1.2.2 Properties 546
    - 17.1.1.2.3 Applications 546
    - 17.1.1.2.4 Commercial examples 547
  - 17.1.1.3 Polytrimethylene terephthalate (Bio-PTT) 547
    - 17.1.1.3.1 Overview 547
    - 17.1.1.3.2 Production Process 547
    - 17.1.1.3.3 Properties 548
    - 17.1.1.3.4 Applications 548
    - 17.1.1.3.5 Commercial examples 549
  - 17.1.1.4 Polyethylene furanoate (Bio-PEF) 549
    - 17.1.1.4.1 Overview 549
    - 17.1.1.4.2 Properties 549
    - 17.1.1.4.3 Applications 550
    - 17.1.1.4.4 Commercial examples 550
  - 17.1.1.5 Bio-PA 550
    - 17.1.1.5.1 Overview 550
    - 17.1.1.5.2 Properties 551
    - 17.1.1.5.3 Commercial examples 551
  - 17.1.1.6 Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (Bio-PBAT)- Aliphatic aromatic copolyesters 551
    - 17.1.1.6.1 Overview 551
    - 17.1.1.6.2 Properties 552
    - 17.1.1.6.3 Applications 552
    - 17.1.1.6.4 Commercial examples 553
  - 17.1.1.7 Polybutylene succinate (PBS) and copolymers 553
    - 17.1.1.7.1 Overview 553
    - 17.1.1.7.2 Properties 553
    - 17.1.1.7.3 Applications 554
    - 17.1.1.7.4 Commercial examples 554
  - 17.1.1.8 Polypropylene (Bio-PP) 554
    - 17.1.1.8.1 Overview 554
    - 17.1.1.8.2 Properties 555
    - 17.1.1.8.3 Applications 555
    - 17.1.1.8.4 Commercial examples 555
  - 17.1.1.9 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) 556
    - 17.1.1.9.1 Properties 556
    - 17.1.1.9.2 Applications 556
    - 17.1.1.9.3 Commercial examples 558
  - 17.1.1.10 Starch-based blends 558
    - 17.1.1.10.1 Overview 558
    - 17.1.1.10.2 Properties 559
    - 17.1.1.10.3 Applications 559
    - 17.1.1.10.4 Commercial examples 559
  - 17.1.1.11 Cellulose 560
    - 17.1.1.11.1 Feedstocks 560
  - 17.1.1.12 Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) 560
    - 17.1.1.12.1 Properties 560
  - 17.1.1.13 Nanocellulose 561
    - 17.1.1.13.1 Cellulose nanocrystals 561
      - 17.1.1.13.1.1 Applications 562
      - 17.1.1.13.2     Cellulose nanofibers 563
        
        17.1.1.13.2.1 Applications   564
        
        17.1.1.13.2.1.1            Reinforcement and barrier    569
        
        17.1.1.13.2.1.2            Biodegradable food packaging foil and films            569
        
        17.1.1.13.2.1.3            Paperboard coatings 570
      - 17.1.1.13.3     Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNC)          570
        
        17.1.1.13.3.1 Applications in packaging     573
        
        17.1.1.13.3.2 Commercial examples            574
  - 17.1.1.14 Protein-based bioplastics in packaging 575
    - 17.1.1.14.1 Feedstocks 575
    - 17.1.1.14.2 Commercial examples 577
  - 17.1.1.15 Alginate 577
    - 17.1.1.15.1 Overview 577
    - 17.1.1.15.2 Production 579
    - 17.1.1.15.3 Applications 579
    - 17.1.1.15.4 Producers 579
  - 17.1.1.16 Mycelium 580
    - 17.1.1.16.1 Overview 580
    - 17.1.1.16.2 Applications 581
    - 17.1.1.16.3 Commercial examples 581
  - 17.1.1.17 Chitosan 582
    - 17.1.1.17.1 Overview 582
    - 17.1.1.17.2 Applications 583
    - 17.1.1.17.3 Commercial examples 583
  - 17.1.1.18 Bio-naphtha 584
    - 17.1.1.18.1 Overview 584
    - 17.1.1.18.2 Markets and applications 585
    - 17.1.1.18.3 Commercial examples 587
- 17.1.2 Recycled and Upcycled Plastics 588
- 17.1.3 High-Performance Bio-based Materials 588
- 17.1.4 Companies 590
17.2 Sustainable Agriculture Chemicals 593
- 17.2.1 Overview 593
- 17.2.2 Biopesticides and Biocontrol Agents 593
- 17.2.3 Precision Agriculture Chemicals 595
- 17.2.4 Controlled-Release Fertilizers 597
- 17.2.5 Biostimulants 597
- 17.2.6 Microbials 599
- 17.2.7 Biochemicals 603
- 17.2.8 Semiochemicals 605
- 17.2.9 Natural biostimulants and pesticides 607
- 17.2.10 Companies 608
17.3 Sustainable Construction Materials 611
- 17.3.1 Established bio-based construction materials 611
- 17.3.2 Hemp-based Materials 614
  - 17.3.2.1 Hemp Concrete (Hempcrete) 614
  - 17.3.2.2 Hemp Fiberboard 614
  - 17.3.2.3 Hemp Insulation 615
- 17.3.3 Mycelium-based Materials 615
  - 17.3.3.1 Insulation 617
  - 17.3.3.2 Structural Elements 617
  - 17.3.3.3 Acoustic Panels 617
  - 17.3.3.4 Decorative Elements 617
- 17.3.4 Sustainable Concrete and Cement Alternatives 618
  - 17.3.4.1 Geopolymer Concrete 618
  - 17.3.4.2 Recycled Aggregate Concrete 618
  - 17.3.4.3 Lime-Based Materials 619
  - 17.3.4.4 Self-healing concrete 619
    - 17.3.4.4.1 Bioconcrete 621
    - 17.3.4.4.2 Fiber concrete 623
  - 17.3.4.5 Microalgae biocement 623
  - 17.3.4.6 Carbon-negative concrete 625
  - 17.3.4.7 Biomineral binders 625
- 17.3.5 Natural Fiber Composites 626
  - 17.3.5.1 Types of Natural Fibers 626
  - 17.3.5.2 Properties 627
  - 17.3.5.3 Applications in Construction 627
- 17.3.6 Cellulose nanofibers 628
  - 17.3.6.1 Sandwich composites 628
  - 17.3.6.2 Cement additives 628
  - 17.3.6.3 Pump primers 629
  - 17.3.6.4 Insulation materials 629
- 17.3.7 Sustainable Insulation Materials 630
  - 17.3.7.1 Types of sustainable insulation materials 630
  - 17.3.7.2 Biobased and sustainable aerogels (bio-aerogels) 631
- 17.3.8 Companies 633
17.4 Green Cosmetics and Personal Care 637
- 17.4.1 Natural and Bio-based Ingredients 637
- 17.4.2 Microplastic Alternatives 639
  - 17.4.2.1 Natural hard materials 641
  - 17.4.2.2 Natural polymers 642
  - 17.4.2.3 Polysaccharides 642
    - 17.4.2.3.1 Starch 642
      - 17.4.2.3.1.1 Applications and commercial status 642
      - 17.4.2.3.1.2 Companies 643
    - 17.4.2.3.2 Cellulose 643
      - 17.4.2.3.2.1   Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC)     644
        
        17.4.2.3.2.1.1 Applications and commercial status             644
        
        17.4.2.3.2.1.2 Companies     644
      - 17.4.2.3.2.2   Regenerated cellulose microspheres            644
        
        17.4.2.3.2.2.1 Applications and commercial status             644
        
        17.4.2.3.2.2.2 Companies     645
      - 17.4.2.3.2.3   Cellulose nanocrystals           645
        
        17.4.2.3.2.3.1 Applications and commercial status             646
        
        17.4.2.3.2.3.2 Companies     646
      - 17.4.2.3.2.4 Bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) 647
        
        17.4.2.3.2.4.1 Companies 647
    - 17.4.2.3.3 Chitin 648
      - 17.4.2.3.3.1 Applications and commercial status 648
      - 17.4.2.3.3.2 Companies 648
  - 17.4.2.4 Proteins 648
    - 17.4.2.4.1 Collagen/Gelatin 649
      - 17.4.2.4.1.1 Applications and commercial status 649
    - 17.4.2.4.2 Casein 649
      - 17.4.2.4.2.1 Applications and commercial status 649
  - 17.4.2.5 Polyesters 649
    - 17.4.2.5.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 649
      - 17.4.2.5.1.1 Applications and commercial status 651
      - 17.4.2.5.1.2 Companies 651
    - 17.4.2.5.2 Polylactic acid 653
      - 17.4.2.5.2.1 Applications and commercial status 654
      - 17.4.2.5.2.2 Companies 654
  - 17.4.2.6 Other natural polymers 655
    - 17.4.2.6.1 Lignin 655
      - 17.4.2.6.1.1 Description 655
      - 17.4.2.6.1.2 Applications and commercial status 657
      - 17.4.2.6.1.3 Companies 658
    - 17.4.2.6.2 Alginate 660
      - 17.4.2.6.2.1 Applications and commercial status 660
      - 17.4.2.6.2.2 Companies 661
- 17.4.3 Waterless Formulations 662
- 17.4.4 Companies 665
17.5 Sustainable Packaging 669
- 17.5.1 Paper and board packaging 669
- 17.5.2 Food packaging 669
  - 17.5.2.1 Bio-Based films and trays 670
  - 17.5.2.2 Bio-Based pouches and bags 671
  - 17.5.2.3 Bio-Based textiles and nets 671
  - 17.5.2.4 Bioadhesives 671
    - 17.5.2.4.1 Starch 672
    - 17.5.2.4.2 Cellulose 672
    - 17.5.2.4.3 Protein-Based 673
  - 17.5.2.5 Barrier coatings and films 673
    - 17.5.2.5.1 Polysaccharides 674
      - 17.5.2.5.1.1 Chitin 674
      - 17.5.2.5.1.2 Chitosan 675
      - 17.5.2.5.1.3 Starch 675
    - 17.5.2.5.2 Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) 675
    - 17.5.2.5.3 Poly(butylene Succinate) 675
    - 17.5.2.5.4 Functional Lipid and Proteins Based Coatings 675
  - 17.5.2.6 Active and Smart Food Packaging 676
    - 17.5.2.6.1 Active Materials and Packaging Systems 676
    - 17.5.2.6.2 Intelligent and Smart Food Packaging 677
  - 17.5.2.7 Antimicrobial films and agents 678
    - 17.5.2.7.1 Natural 679
    - 17.5.2.7.2 Inorganic nanoparticles 679
    - 17.5.2.7.3 Biopolymers 680
  - 17.5.2.8 Bio-based Inks and Dyes 680
  - 17.5.2.9 Edible films and coatings 681
    - 17.5.2.9.1 Overview 681
    - 17.5.2.9.2 Commercial examples 683
  - 17.5.2.10 Types of bio-based coatings and films in packaging 684
    - 17.5.2.10.1 Polyurethane coatings 684
      - 17.5.2.10.1.1 Properties 684
      - 17.5.2.10.1.2 Bio-based polyurethane coatings 685
      - 17.5.2.10.1.3 Products 686
    - 17.5.2.10.2 Acrylate resins 687
      - 17.5.2.10.2.1 Properties 687
      - 17.5.2.10.2.2 Bio-based acrylates 687
      - 17.5.2.10.2.3 Products 688
    - 17.5.2.10.3 Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA) 688
      - 17.5.2.10.3.1 Properties 690
      - 17.5.2.10.3.2 Bio-PLA coatings and films 690
    - 17.5.2.10.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) coatings 691
    - 17.5.2.10.5 Cellulose coatings and films 692
      - 17.5.2.10.5.1 Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) 692
      - 17.5.2.10.5.2 Cellulose nanofibers 693
        
        17.5.2.10.5.2.1 Properties 693
        
        17.5.2.10.5.2.2 Product developers 695
    - 17.5.2.10.6 Lignin coatings 697
    - 17.5.2.10.7 Protein-based biomaterials for coatings 697
      - 17.5.2.10.7.1 Plant derived proteins 698
      - 17.5.2.10.7.2 Animal origin proteins 698
- 17.5.3 Carbon capture derived materials for packaging 699
  - 17.5.3.1 Benefits of carbon utilization for plastics feedstocks 700
  - 17.5.3.2 CO₂-derived polymers and plastics 702
  - 17.5.3.3 CO2 utilization products 703
- 17.5.4 Companies 705
17.6 Eco-friendly Paints and Coatings 709
- 17.6.1 UV-cure 710
- 17.6.2 Waterborne coatings 710
- 17.6.3 Treatments with less or no solvents 711
- 17.6.4 Hyperbranched polymers for coatings 711
- 17.6.5 Powder coatings 711
- 17.6.6 High solid (HS) coatings 713
- 17.6.7 Use of bio-based materials in coatings 713
  - 17.6.7.1 Biopolymers 713
  - 17.6.7.2 Coatings based on agricultural waste 714
  - 17.6.7.3 Vegetable oils and fatty acids 714
  - 17.6.7.4 Proteins 714
  - 17.6.7.5 Cellulose 715
  - 17.6.7.6 Plant-Based wax coatings 716
- 17.6.8 Barrier coatings 717
  - 17.6.8.1 Polysaccharides 719
    - 17.6.8.1.1 Chitin 719
    - 17.6.8.1.2 Chitosan 719
    - 17.6.8.1.3 Starch 719
  - 17.6.8.2 Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) 720
  - 17.6.8.3 Poly(butylene Succinate 720
  - 17.6.8.4 Functional Lipid and Proteins Based Coatings 720
- 17.6.9 Alkyd coatings 721
  - 17.6.9.1 Alkyd resin properties 721
  - 17.6.9.2 Bio-based alkyd coatings 722
  - 17.6.9.3 Products 724
- 17.6.10 Polyurethane coatings 725
  - 17.6.10.1 Properties 725
  - 17.6.10.2 Bio-based polyurethane coatings 726
    - 17.6.10.2.1 Bio-based polyols 726
    - 17.6.10.2.2 Non-isocyanate polyurethane (NIPU) 727
  - 17.6.10.3 Products 727
- 17.6.11 Epoxy coatings 728
  - 17.6.11.1 Properties 728
  - 17.6.11.2 Bio-based epoxy coatings 729
  - 17.6.11.3 Products 730
- 17.6.12 Acrylate resins 731
  - 17.6.12.1 Properties 731
  - 17.6.12.2 Bio-based acrylates 732
  - 17.6.12.3 Products 732
- 17.6.13 Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA) 733
  - 17.6.13.1 Bio-PLA coatings and films 735
- 17.6.14 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) 735
- 17.6.15 Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) 736
- 17.6.16 Cellulose nanofibers 737
- 17.6.17 Cellulose nanocrystals 741
- 17.6.18 Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNC) 742
- 17.6.19 Rosins 742
- 17.6.20 Bio-based carbon black 743
  - 17.6.20.1 Lignin-based 743
  - 17.6.20.2 Algae-based 743
- 17.6.21 Lignin 743
- 17.6.22 Antimicrobial films and agents 744
  - 17.6.22.1 Natural 745
  - 17.6.22.2 Inorganic nanoparticles 746
  - 17.6.22.3 Biopolymers 746
- 17.6.23 Nanocoatings 747
- 17.6.24 Protein-based biomaterials for coatings 748
  - 17.6.24.1 Plant derived proteins 748
  - 17.6.24.2 Animal origin proteins 749
- 17.6.25 Algal coatings 750
- 17.6.26 Polypeptides 753
- 17.6.27 Companies 755
17.7 Green Electronics 759
- 17.7.1 Conventional electronics manufacturing 759
- 17.7.2 Benefits of Green Electronics manufacturing 759
- 17.7.3 Challenges in adopting Green Electronics manufacturing 761
- 17.7.4 Green Electronics Manufacturing 761
- 17.7.5 Sustainability in PCB manufacturing 763
  - 17.7.5.1 Sustainable cleaning of PCBs 763
- 17.7.6 Design of PCBs for sustainability 764
  - 17.7.6.1 Rigid 766
  - 17.7.6.2 Flexible 766
  - 17.7.6.3 Additive manufacturing 767
  - 17.7.6.4 In-mold elctronics (IME) 768
- 17.7.7 Materials 769
  - 17.7.7.1 Metal cores 769
  - 17.7.7.2 Recycled laminates 769
  - 17.7.7.3 Conductive inks 769
  - 17.7.7.4 Green and lead-free solder 772
  - 17.7.7.5 Biodegradable substrates 773
    - 17.7.7.5.1 Bacterial Cellulose 773
    - 17.7.7.5.2 Mycelium 774
    - 17.7.7.5.3 Lignin 776
    - 17.7.7.5.4 Cellulose Nanofibers 779
    - 17.7.7.5.5 Soy Protein 782
    - 17.7.7.5.6 Algae 782
    - 17.7.7.5.7 PHAs 783
  - 17.7.7.6 Biobased inks 784
- 17.7.8 Substrates 784
  - 17.7.8.1 Halogen-free FR4 784
    - 17.7.8.1.1 FR4 limitations 784
    - 17.7.8.1.2 FR4 alternatives 786
    - 17.7.8.1.3 Bio-Polyimide 786
  - 17.7.8.2 Metal-core PCBs 788
  - 17.7.8.3 Biobased PCBs 788
    - 17.7.8.3.1 Flexible (bio) polyimide PCBs 789
    - 17.7.8.3.2 Recent commercial activity 790
  - 17.7.8.4 Paper-based PCBs 791
  - 17.7.8.5 PCBs without solder mask 791
  - 17.7.8.6 Thinner dielectrics 792
  - 17.7.8.7 Recycled plastic substrates 792
  - 17.7.8.8 Flexible substrates 792
- 17.7.9 Sustainable patterning and metallization in electronics manufacturing 793
  - 17.7.9.1 Introduction 793
  - 17.7.9.2 Issues with sustainability 793
  - 17.7.9.3 Regeneration and reuse of etching chemicals 794
  - 17.7.9.4 Transition from Wet to Dry phase patterning 795
  - 17.7.9.5 Print-and-plate 795
  - 17.7.9.6 Approaches 796
    - 17.7.9.6.1 Direct Printed Electronics 796
    - 17.7.9.6.2 Photonic Sintering 798
    - 17.7.9.6.3 Biometallization 798
    - 17.7.9.6.4 Plating Resist Alternatives 799
    - 17.7.9.6.5 Laser-Induced Forward Transfer 800
    - 17.7.9.6.6 Electrohydrodynamic Printing 802
    - 17.7.9.6.7 Electrically conductive adhesives (ECAs 802
    - 17.7.9.6.8 Green electroless plating 804
    - 17.7.9.6.9 Smart Masking 805
    - 17.7.9.6.10 Component Integration 805
    - 17.7.9.6.11 Bio-inspired material deposition 806
    - 17.7.9.6.12 Multi-material jetting 806
    - 17.7.9.6.13 Vacuumless deposition 808
    - 17.7.9.6.14 Upcycling waste streams 808
- 17.7.10 Sustainable attachment and integration of components 809
  - 17.7.10.1 Conventional component attachment materials 809
  - 17.7.10.2 Materials 810
    - 17.7.10.2.1 Conductive adhesives 810
    - 17.7.10.2.2 Biodegradable adhesives 810
    - 17.7.10.2.3 Magnets 811
    - 17.7.10.2.4 Bio-based solders 811
    - 17.7.10.2.5 Bio-derived solders 811
    - 17.7.10.2.6 Recycled plastics 812
    - 17.7.10.2.7 Nano adhesives 812
    - 17.7.10.2.8 Shape memory polymers 812
    - 17.7.10.2.9 Photo-reversible polymers 814
    - 17.7.10.2.10 Conductive biopolymers 815
  - 17.7.10.3 Processes 815
    - 17.7.10.3.1 Traditional thermal processing methods 816
    - 17.7.10.3.2 Low temperature solder 816
    - 17.7.10.3.3 Reflow soldering 819
    - 17.7.10.3.4 Induction soldering 820
    - 17.7.10.3.5 UV curing 821
    - 17.7.10.3.6 Near-infrared (NIR) radiation curing 821
    - 17.7.10.3.7 Photonic sintering/curing 822
    - 17.7.10.3.8 Hybrid integration 822
- 17.7.11 Sustainable integrated circuits 823
  - 17.7.11.1 IC manufacturing 823
  - 17.7.11.2 Sustainable IC manufacturing 824
  - 17.7.11.3 Wafer production 824
    - 17.7.11.3.1 Silicon 825
    - 17.7.11.3.2 Gallium nitride ICs 825
    - 17.7.11.3.3 Flexible ICs 825
    - 17.7.11.3.4 Fully printed organic ICs 826
  - 17.7.11.4 Oxidation methods 827
    - 17.7.11.4.1 Sustainable oxidation 827
    - 17.7.11.4.2 Metal oxides 828
    - 17.7.11.4.3 Recycling 829
    - 17.7.11.4.4 Thin gate oxide layers 829
  - 17.7.11.5 Patterning and doping 830
    - 17.7.11.5.1 Processes 830
      - 17.7.11.5.1.1 Wet etching 830
      - 17.7.11.5.1.2 Dry plasma etching 830
      - 17.7.11.5.1.3 Lift-off patterning 831
      - 17.7.11.5.1.4 Surface doping 831
  - 17.7.11.6 Metallization 832
    - 17.7.11.6.1 Evaporation 832
    - 17.7.11.6.2 Plating 833
    - 17.7.11.6.3 Printing 833
      - 17.7.11.6.3.1 Printed metal gates for organic thin film transistors 833
    - 17.7.11.6.4 Physical vapour deposition (PVD) 834
- 17.7.12 End of life 835
  - 17.7.12.1 Hazardous waste 835
  - 17.7.12.2 Emissions 836
  - 17.7.12.3 Water Usage 837
  - 17.7.12.4 Recycling 838
    - 17.7.12.4.1 Mechanical recycling 839
    - 17.7.12.4.2 Electro-Mechanical Separation 840
    - 17.7.12.4.3 Chemical Recycling 840
    - 17.7.12.4.4 Electrochemical Processes 841
    - 17.7.12.4.5 Thermal Recycling 841
- 17.7.13 Green Certification 842
- 17.7.14 Companies 843
17.8 Sustainable Textiles and Fibers 845
- 17.8.1 Types of bio-based fibres 845
  - 17.8.1.1 Natural fibres 847
  - 17.8.1.2 Main-made bio-based fibres 849
- 17.8.2 Bio-based synthetics 850
- 17.8.3 Recyclability of bio-based fibres 851
- 17.8.4 Lyocell 851
- 17.8.5 Bacterial cellulose 852
- 17.8.6 Algae textiles 852
- 17.8.7 Bio-based leather 853
  - 17.8.7.1 Properties of bio-based leathers 857
    - 17.8.7.1.1 Tear strength. 858
    - 17.8.7.1.2 Tensile strength 858
    - 17.8.7.1.3 Bally flexing 858
  - 17.8.7.2 Comparison with conventional leathers 859
  - 17.8.7.3 Comparative analysis of bio-based leathers 862
  - 17.8.7.4 Plant-based leather 863
    - 17.8.7.4.1 Overview 863
    - 17.8.7.4.2 Production processes 863
      - 17.8.7.4.2.1 Feedstocks 864
      - 17.8.7.4.2.1 Agriculture Residues 864
      - 17.8.7.4.2.2 Food Processing Waste 864
      - 17.8.7.4.2.3 Invasive Plants 864
      - 17.8.7.4.2.4 Culture-Grown Inputs 865
      - 17.8.7.4.2.5 Textile-Based 865
      - 17.8.7.4.2.6 Bio-Composite 866
    - 17.8.7.4.3 Products 866
    - 17.8.7.4.4 Market players 867
  - 17.8.7.5 Mycelium leather 869
    - 17.8.7.5.1 Overview 869
    - 17.8.7.5.2 Production process 872
      - 17.8.7.5.2.1 Growth conditions 872
      - 17.8.7.5.2.2 Tanning Mycelium Leather 873
      - 17.8.7.5.2.3 Dyeing Mycelium Leather 873
    - 17.8.7.5.3 Products 874
    - 17.8.7.5.4 Market players 874
  - 17.8.7.6 Microbial leather 875
    - 17.8.7.6.1 Overview 875
    - 17.8.7.6.2 Production process 875
    - 17.8.7.6.3 Fermentation conditions 876
    - 17.8.7.6.4 Harvesting 877
    - 17.8.7.6.5 Products 878
    - 17.8.7.6.6 Market players 880
  - 17.8.7.7 Lab grown leather 881
    - 17.8.7.7.1 Overview 881
    - 17.8.7.7.2 Production process 882
    - 17.8.7.7.3 Products 883
    - 17.8.7.7.4 Market players 883
  - 17.8.7.8 Protein-based leather 884
    - 17.8.7.8.1 Overview 884
    - 17.8.7.8.2 Production process 885
    - 17.8.7.8.3 Commercial activity 885
  - 17.8.7.9 Sustainable textiles coatings and dyes 886
    - 17.8.7.9.1 Overview 886
      - 17.8.7.9.1.1 Coatings 886
      - 17.8.7.9.1.2 Dyes 887
    - 17.8.7.9.2 Commercial activity 888
- 17.8.8 Companies 889
17.9 Alternative Fuels and Lubricants 892
- 17.9.1 Biofuels and Synthetic Fuels 892
- 17.9.2 Biodiesel 892
  - 17.9.2.1 Biodiesel by generation 894
  - 17.9.2.2 Production of biodiesel and other biofuels 895
    - 17.9.2.2.1 Pyrolysis of biomass 896
    - 17.9.2.2.2 Vegetable oil transesterification 899
    - 17.9.2.2.3 Vegetable oil hydrogenation (HVO) 900
      - 17.9.2.2.3.1 Production process 901
    - 17.9.2.2.4 Biodiesel from tall oil 902
    - 17.9.2.2.5 Fischer-Tropsch BioDiesel 902
    - 17.9.2.2.6 Hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass 904
    - 17.9.2.2.7 CO2 capture and Fischer-Tropsch (FT) 905
    - 17.9.2.2.8 Dymethyl ether (DME) 905
  - 17.9.2.3 Prices 906
  - 17.9.2.4 Global production and consumption 906
- 17.9.3 Renewable diesel 909
  - 17.9.3.1 Production 909
  - 17.9.3.2 SWOT analysis 910
  - 17.9.3.3 Global consumption 911
  - 17.9.3.4 Prices 914
- 17.9.4 Bio-aviation fuel (bio-jet fuel, sustainable aviation fuel, renewable jet fuel or aviation biofuel) 915
  - 17.9.4.1 Description 915
  - 17.9.4.2 SWOT analysis 915
  - 17.9.4.3 Global production and consumption 916
  - 17.9.4.4 Production pathways 917
  - 17.9.4.5 Prices 919
  - 17.9.4.6 Bio-aviation fuel production capacities 920
  - 17.9.4.7 Market challenges 920
  - 17.9.4.8 Global consumption 921
- 17.9.5 Bio-naphtha 922
  - 17.9.5.1 Overview 922
  - 17.9.5.2 SWOT analysis 923
  - 17.9.5.3 Markets and applications 924
  - 17.9.5.4 Prices 926
  - 17.9.5.5 Production capacities, by producer, current and planned 926
  - 17.9.5.6 Production capacities, total (tonnes), historical, current and planned 927
- 17.9.6 Biomethanol 928
  - 17.9.6.1 SWOT analysis 929
  - 17.9.6.2 Methanol-to gasoline technology 930
  - 17.9.6.2.1 Production processes 931
    - 17.9.6.2.1.1 Anaerobic digestion 932
    - 17.9.6.2.1.2 Biomass gasification 933
    - 17.9.6.2.1.3 Power to Methane 933
- 17.9.7 Ethanol 934
  - 17.9.7.1 Technology description 934
  - 17.9.7.2 1G Bio-Ethanol 934
  - 17.9.7.3 SWOT analysis 935
  - 17.9.7.4 Ethanol to jet fuel technology 936
  - 17.9.7.5 Methanol from pulp & paper production 937
  - 17.9.7.6 Sulfite spent liquor fermentation 937
  - 17.9.7.7 Gasification 938
    - 17.9.7.7.1 Biomass gasification and syngas fermentation 938
    - 17.9.7.7.2 Biomass gasification and syngas thermochemical conversion 938
  - 17.9.7.8 CO2 capture and alcohol synthesis 939
  - 17.9.7.9 Biomass hydrolysis and fermentation 939
    - 17.9.7.9.1 Separate hydrolysis and fermentation 939
    - 17.9.7.9.2 Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) 940
    - 17.9.7.9.3 Pre-hydrolysis and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (PSSF) 940
    - 17.9.7.9.4 Simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (SSCF) 941
    - 17.9.7.9.5 Direct conversion (consolidated bioprocessing) (CBP) 941
  - 17.9.7.10 Global ethanol consumption 942
- 17.9.8 Biobutanol 943
  - 17.9.8.1 Production 945
  - 17.9.8.2 Prices 945
- 17.9.9 Biomass-based Gas 946
  - 17.9.9.1 Biomethane 948
  - 17.9.9.2 Production pathways 950
    - 17.9.9.2.1 Landfill gas recovery 950
    - 17.9.9.2.2 Anaerobic digestion 951
    - 17.9.9.2.3 Thermal gasification 952
  - 17.9.9.3 SWOT analysis 953
  - 17.9.9.4 Global production 954
  - 17.9.9.5 Prices 954
    - 17.9.9.5.1 Raw Biogas 954
    - 17.9.9.5.2 Upgraded Biomethane 954
  - 17.9.9.6 Bio-LNG 955
    - 17.9.9.6.1 Markets 955
      - 17.9.9.6.1.1 Trucks 955
      - 17.9.9.6.1.2 Marine 955
    - 17.9.9.6.2 Production 955
    - 17.9.9.6.3 Plants 956
  - 17.9.9.7 bio-CNG (compressed natural gas derived from biogas) 956
  - 17.9.9.8 Carbon capture from biogas 957
- 17.9.10 Biosyngas 958
  - 17.9.10.1 Production 958
  - 17.9.10.2 Prices 959
- 17.9.11 Biohydrogen 960
  - 17.9.11.1 Description 960
  - 17.9.11.2 SWOT analysis 961
  - 17.9.11.3 Production of biohydrogen from biomass 962
    - 17.9.11.3.1 Biological Conversion Routes 963
      - 17.9.11.3.1.1 Bio-photochemical Reaction 963
      - 17.9.11.3.1.2 Fermentation and Anaerobic Digestion 963
    - 17.9.11.3.2 Thermochemical conversion routes 963
      - 17.9.11.3.2.1 Biomass Gasification 964
      - 17.9.11.3.2.2 Biomass Pyrolysis 964
      - 17.9.11.3.2.3 Biomethane Reforming 964
  - 17.9.11.4 Applications 965
  - 17.9.11.5 Prices 966
- 17.9.12 Biochar in biogas production 966
- 17.9.13 Bio-DME 966
- 17.9.14 Chemical recycling for biofuels 967
  - 17.9.14.1 Plastic pyrolysis 967
  - 17.9.14.2 Used tires pyrolysis 968
    - 17.9.14.2.1 Conversion to biofuel 969
  - 17.9.14.3 Co-pyrolysis of biomass and plastic wastes 970
  - 17.9.14.4 Gasification 971
    - 17.9.14.4.1 Syngas conversion to methanol 972
    - 17.9.14.4.2 Biomass gasification and syngas fermentation 976
    - 17.9.14.4.3 Biomass gasification and syngas thermochemical conversion 976
  - 17.9.14.5 Hydrothermal cracking 977
- 17.9.15 Electrofuels (E-fuels, power-to-gas/liquids/fuels) 978
  - 17.9.15.1 Introduction 978
  - 17.9.15.2 Benefits of e-fuels 980
  - 17.9.15.3 Feedstocks 981
    - 17.9.15.3.1 Hydrogen electrolysis 981
  - 17.9.15.4 CO2 capture 982
  - 17.9.15.5 Production 982
    - 17.9.15.5.1 eFuel production facilities, current and planned 985
  - 17.9.15.6 Companies 986
- 17.9.16 Algae-derived biofuels 987
  - 17.9.16.1 Technology description 987
    - 17.9.16.1.1 Conversion pathways 987
  - 17.9.16.2 Production 988
  - 17.9.16.3 Market challenges 989
  - 17.9.16.4 Prices 990
  - 17.9.16.5 Producers 991
- 17.9.17 Green Ammonia 991
  - 17.9.17.1 Production 992
    - 17.9.17.1.1 Decarbonisation of ammonia production 994
    - 17.9.17.1.2 Green ammonia projects 995
  - 17.9.17.2 Green ammonia synthesis methods 995
    - 17.9.17.2.1 Haber-Bosch process 995
    - 17.9.17.2.2 Biological nitrogen fixation 996
    - 17.9.17.2.3 Electrochemical production 997
    - 17.9.17.2.4 Chemical looping processes 997
  - 17.9.17.3 Blue ammonia 997
    - 17.9.17.3.1 Blue ammonia projects 997
    - 17.9.17.3.2 Markets and applications 998
    - 17.9.17.3.3 Chemical energy storage 998
    - 17.9.17.3.4 Ammonia fuel cells 998
    - 17.9.17.3.5 Marine fuel 999
    - 17.9.17.3.6 Prices 1001
  - 17.9.17.4 Companies and projects 1003
- 17.9.18 Bio-oils (pyrolysis oils) 1004
  - 17.9.18.1 Description 1004
    - 17.9.18.1.1 Advantages of bio-oils 1004
  - 17.9.18.2 Production 1006
    - 17.9.18.2.1 Fast Pyrolysis 1006
    - 17.9.18.2.2 Costs of production 1006
    - 17.9.18.2.3 Upgrading 1006
  - 17.9.18.3 Applications 1008
  - 17.9.18.4 Bio-oil producers 1008
  - 17.9.18.5 Prices 1009
- 17.9.19 Refuse Derived Fuels (RDF) 1010
  - 17.9.19.1 Overview 1010
  - 17.9.19.2 Production 1010
    - 17.9.19.2.1 Production process 1010
    - 17.9.19.2.2 Mechanical biological treatment 1011
  - 17.9.19.3 Markets 1012
- 17.9.20 Bio-based Lubricants 1012
- 17.9.21 Companies 1015
17.10 Pharmaceuticals and Healthcare 1018
- 17.10.1 Green Pharmaceutical Synthesis 1018
  - 17.10.1.1 Green Solvents 1018
  - 17.10.1.2 Catalysis 1020
  - 17.10.1.3 Continuous Flow Chemistry 1021
  - 17.10.1.4 Alternative Energy Sources 1023
  - 17.10.1.5 Green Oxidation and Reduction Methods 1024
  - 17.10.1.6 Atom-Economical Reactions 1025
  - 17.10.1.7 Bio-based Starting Materials 1027
  - 17.10.1.8 Process Intensification 1028
  - 17.10.1.9 Green Analytical Techniques 1030
  - 17.10.1.10 Sustainable Purification Methods 1031
- 17.10.2 Bio-based Drug Delivery Systems 1032
  - 17.10.2.1 Natural Polymers 1032
  - 17.10.2.2 Protein-based Materials 1034
  - 17.10.2.3 Polysaccharide-based Systems 1036
  - 17.10.2.4 Lipid-based Carriers 1038
  - 17.10.2.5 Plant-derived Materials 1040
  - 17.10.2.6 Microbial-derived Polymers 1042
  - 17.10.2.7 Green Synthesis Methods 1044
  - 17.10.2.8 Stimuli-responsive Biopolymers 1046
  - 17.10.2.9 Bioconjugation Techniques 1048
  - 17.10.2.10 Sustainable Particle Formation 1050
  - 17.10.2.11 Bio-inspired Delivery Systems 1051
- 17.10.3 Sustainable Medical Devices 1053
- 17.10.4 Personalized Chemistry in Medicine 1055
  - 17.10.4.1 Tailored Drug Delivery Systems 1055
  - 17.10.4.2 Personalized Diagnostic Materials 1056
  - 17.10.4.3 Custom-synthesized Therapeutics 1058
  - 17.10.4.4 Biocompatible Materials for Implants 1059
  - 17.10.4.5 3D-printed Pharmaceuticals 1061
  - 17.10.4.6 Personalized Nutrient Formulations 1063
- 17.10.5 Companies 1065
17.11 Advanced Materials for 3D Printing 1067
- 17.11.1 Bio-based 3D Printing Resins 1067
- 17.11.2 Recyclable and Reusable 3D Printing Materials 1069
- 17.11.3 Functional and Smart 3D Printing Materials 1071
- 17.11.3.1 Companies 1073
17.12 Artificial Intelligence in Chemical Design 1076
- 17.12.1 Machine Learning for Molecular Design 1076
- 17.12.2 AI-driven Retrosynthesis Planning 1077
- 17.12.3 Predictive Modeling of Chemical Properties 1079
- 17.12.4 AI in Process Optimization 1080
- 17.12.5 Automated Lab Systems and Robotics 1080
- 17.12.6 AI for Materials Discovery and Development 1083
17.13 Quantum Chemistry Applications 1085
- 17.13.1 Quantum Computing for Molecular Simulations 1085
- 17.13.2 Quantum Sensors in Chemical Analysis 1086
- 17.13.3 Quantum-inspired Algorithms for Property Prediction 1087
- 17.13.4 Quantum Approaches to Catalyst Design 1089
- 17.13.5 Quantum Chemistry in Drug Discovery 1090
- 17.13.6 Quantum Effects in Nanomaterials 1091

18 ECONOMIC ASPECTS AND BUSINESS MODELS 1093

18.1 Cost Competitiveness of Sustainable Chemical Technologies 1093
18.2 Investment Trends in Green Chemistry 1094
18.3 New Business Models in the Circular Economy 1095
18.4 Market Dynamics and Consumer Preferences 1096
18.5 Intellectual Property Considerations 1098

19 FUTURE OUTLOOK AND EMERGING TRENDS 1100

19.1 Convergence of Bio, Nano, and Information Technologies 1101
19.2 Quantum Computing in Chemical Research and Development 1102
19.3 Space-based Manufacturing of Chemicals 1103
19.4 Artificial Photosynthesis and Solar Fuels 1104
19.5 Personalized and On-demand Chemical Manufacturing 1105
19.6 The Role of Chemistry in Achieving Net-Zero Emissions 1106
19.7 Green Chemistry Advancements 1107
19.8 Specialty Chemicals Evolution 1109
19.9 Circular Economy Solutions 1111
19.10 Artificial Intelligence and Digitalization Impact 1112
19.11 Quantum Chemistry Prospects 1113

20 APPENDICES 1116

20.1 Glossary of Terms 1116
20.2 List of Abbreviations 1117
20.3 Research Methodology 1118

21 REFERENCES 1120

List of Tables

Table 1. Global drivers and trends in sustainable chemicals. 45
Table 2. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in agriculture. 53
Table 3. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Green Cosmetics and Personal Care. 54
Table 4. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Sustainable Packaging. 54
Table 5. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Eco-friendly Paints and Coatings. 55
Table 6. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Alternative Fuels and Lubricants. 56
Table 7. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Pharmaceuticals and Healthcare. 57
Table 8. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Water Treatment and Purification. 58
Table 9. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Advanced Materials for 3D Printing. 59
Table 10. Sustainable Mining and Metallurgy. 61
Table 11. Comparison of traditional and sustainable chemical feedstocks. 63
Table 12. Types of Biomass and Their Chemical Compositions. 64
Table 13. Pretreatment and Conversion Technologies. 66
Table 14. Challenges in Scaling Up Biomass Utilization. 68
Table 15. CO2 Capture Technologies. 70
Table 16. Chemical Conversion Pathways for CO2. 71
Table 17. Economic and Technical Barriers to CO2 Utilization. 73
Table 18. Industrial Waste Streams and By-products. 76
Table 19. Electrolysis Technologies. 79
Table 20. Types of biocatalysts. 92
Table 21. Heterogeneous Catalysis Advancements. 94
Table 22. Photocatalysis vs Electrocatalysis. 95
Table 23. Applications of chemically recycled materials. 102
Table 24. Summary of non-catalytic pyrolysis technologies. 104
Table 25. Summary of catalytic pyrolysis technologies. 105
Table 26. Summary of pyrolysis technique under different operating conditions. 109
Table 27. Biomass materials and their bio-oil yield. 110
Table 28. Biofuel production cost from the biomass pyrolysis process. 111
Table 29. Pyrolysis companies and plant capacities, current and planned. 114
Table 30. Summary of gasification technologies. 115
Table 31. Advanced recycling (Gasification) companies. 121
Table 32. Summary of dissolution technologies. 121
Table 33. Advanced recycling (Dissolution) companies 122
Table 34. Depolymerisation processes for PET, PU, PC and PA, products and yields. 124
Table 35. Summary of hydrolysis technologies-feedstocks, process, outputs, commercial maturity and technology developers. 125
Table 36. Summary of Enzymolysis technologies-feedstocks, process, outputs, commercial maturity and technology developers. 126
Table 37. Summary of methanolysis technologies-feedstocks, process, outputs, commercial maturity and technology developers. 127
Table 38. Summary of glycolysis technologies-feedstocks, process, outputs, commercial maturity and technology developers. 128
Table 39. Summary of aminolysis technologies. 131
Table 40. Advanced recycling (Depolymerisation) companies and capacities (current and planned). 131
Table 41. Overview of hydrothermal cracking for advanced chemical recycling. 132
Table 42. Overview of Pyrolysis with in-line reforming for advanced chemical recycling. 133
Table 43. Overview of microwave-assisted pyrolysis for advanced chemical recycling. 134
Table 44. Overview of plasma pyrolysis for advanced chemical recycling. 134
Table 45. Overview of plasma gasification for advanced chemical recycling. 135
Table 46. Chemical recycling companies. 139
Table 47. Types of advanced manufacturing technologies in the chemical industry. 164
Table 48. Advantages in Pharmaceuticals and Fine Chemicals. 166
Table 49. Challenges in Scale-up and Implementation. 168
Table 50. Production capacities of biorefinery lignin producers. 176
Table 51. Types of Cell Culture Systems. 179
Table 52. Factors Affecting Cell Culture Performance. 180
Table 53. Types of Fermentation Processes. 181
Table 54. Factors Affecting Fermentation Performance. 182
Table 55. Advances in Fermentation Technology. 182
Table 56. Types of Purification Methods in Downstream Processing. 184
Table 57. Factors Affecting Purification Performance. 185
Table 58. Advances in Purification Technology. 185
Table 59. Common formulation methods used in biomanufacturing. 187
Table 60. Factors Affecting Formulation Performance. 188
Table 61. Advances in Formulation Technology. 188
Table 62. Factors Affecting Scale-up Performance in Biomanufacturing. 190
Table 63. Scale-up Strategies in Biomanufacturing. 191
Table 64. Factors Affecting Optimization Performance in Biomanufacturing. 192
Table 65. Optimization Strategies in Biomanufacturing. 193
Table 66. Types of Quality Control Tests in Biomanufacturing. 194
Table 67.Factors Affecting Quality Control Performance in Biomanufacturing 195
Table 68. Factors Affecting Characterization Performance in Biomanufacturing 198
Table 69. Key fermentation parameters in batch vs continuous biomanufacturing processes. 206
Table 70. Major microbial cell factories used in industrial biomanufacturing. 211
Table 71. Comparison of Modes of Operation. 214
Table 72. Host organisms commonly used in biomanufacturing. 215
Table 73. Carbon utilization revenue forecast by product (US$). 221
Table 74. Carbon utilization business models. 224
Table 75. CO2 utilization and removal pathways. 225
Table 76. Market challenges for CO2 utilization. 227
Table 77. Example CO2 utilization pathways. 228
Table 78. CO2 derived products via Thermochemical conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages. 231
Table 79. CO2 derived products via electrochemical conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages. 235
Table 80. CO2 derived products via biological conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages. 240
Table 81. Companies developing and producing CO2-based polymers. 243
Table 82. Companies developing mineral carbonation technologies. 246
Table 83. Comparison of emerging CO₂ utilization applications. 247
Table 84. Main routes to CO₂-fuels. 249
Table 85. Market overview for CO2 derived fuels. 250
Table 86. Main routes to CO₂ -fuels 252
Table 87. Power-to-Methane projects. 257
Table 88. Microalgae products and prices. 260
Table 89. Main Solar-Driven CO2 Conversion Approaches. 262
Table 90. Companies in CO2-derived fuel products. 262
Table 91. Commodity chemicals and fuels manufactured from CO2. 269
Table 92. Companies in CO2-derived chemicals products. 271
Table 93. Carbon capture technologies and projects in the cement sector 277
Table 94. Prefabricated versus ready-mixed concrete markets . 281
Table 95. CO₂ utilization business models in building materials. 284
Table 96. Companies in CO2 derived building materials. 287
Table 97. Market challenges for CO2 utilization in construction materials. 288
Table 98. Companies in CO2 Utilization in Biological Yield-Boosting. 294
Table 99. Applications of CCS in oil and gas production. 295
Table 100. CO2 EOR/Storage Challenges. 302
Table 101. Comparison of types of biocatalysts. 306
Table 102. Types of Enzyme Biocatalysts. 307
Table 103. Common microbial hosts used for enzyme production. 308
Table 104. Enzyme feedstocks. 309
Table 105. Engineered proteins in industrial applications. 311
Table 106. Types of Microorganism Biocatalysts. 311
Table 107. Commonly used bacterial hosts. 312
Table 108. Examples of fungal hosts. 312
Table 109. Commonly used yeast hosts. 313
Table 110. Types of Engineered Biocatalysts. 316
Table 111. Production methods for biocatalysts. 326
Table 112. Fermentation processes. 327
Table 113. Waste-based feedstocks and biochemicals produced. 327
Table 114. Microbial and mineral-based feedstocks and biochemicals produced. 328
Table 115. Key biomanufacturing processes utilized in synthetic biology. 338
Table 116. Molecules produced through industrial biomanufacturing. 339
Table 117. Continuous vs batch biomanufacturing 340
Table 118. Key fermentation parameters in batch vs continuous biomanufacturing processes. 340
Table 119. Synthetic biology fermentation processes. 342
Table 120. Cell-free versus cell-based systems 343
Table 121. Key applications of genome engineering. 350
Table 122. Types of Nanoparticle Biocatalysts. 353
Table 123. Types of Biocatalytic Cascades and Multi-Enzyme Systems. 355
Table 124. Companies developing biocatalysts.. 359
Table 125. Key tools and techniques used in metabolic engineering for pathway optimization. 364
Table 126. Key applications of metabolic engineering. 366
Table 127. Main DNA synthesis technologies 368
Table 128. Main gene assembly methods. 368
Table 129. Key applications of genome engineering. 373
Table 130. Engineered proteins in industrial applications. 375
Table 131.Key computational tools and their applications in synthetic biology. 386
Table 132. Feedstocks for synthetic biology. 391
Table 133. Products from C1 feedstocks in white biotechnology. 397
Table 134. C2 Feedstock Products. 397
Table 135. CO2 derived products via biological conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages. 400
Table 136. Common starch sources that can be used as feedstocks for producing biochemicals. 408
Table 137. Biomass processes summary, process description and TRL. 411
Table 138. Pathways for hydrogen production from biomass. 413
Table 139. Overview of alginate-description, properties, application and market size. 414
Table 140. Blue biotechnology companies. 417
Table 141. Types of bio-based solvents. 419
Table 142. Companies developing bio-based solvents. 427
Table 143. Value Proposition for Critical Material Extraction Technologies. 434
Table 144. Critical Material Extraction Methods Evaluated by Key Performance Metrics. 435
Table 145. Critical Rare-Earth Element Recovery Technologies from Secondary Sources. 437
Table 146. Li-ion Battery Technology Metal Recovery Methods-Metal, Recovery Method, Recovery Efficiency, Challenges, Environmental Impact, Economic Viability. 438
Table 147. Critical Semiconductor Materials Recovery-Material, Primary Source, Recovery Method, Recovery Efficiency, Challenges, Potential Applications. 439
Table 148. Critical Semiconductor Material Recovery from Secondary Sources. 440
Table 149. Critical Platinum Group Metal Recovery. 442
Table 150. Companies in waste valorization and resrouce recovery. 490
Table 151. Energy Efficiency Measures in Chemical Plants. 495
Table 152. Renewable Energy Sources in Chemical Production. 500
Table 153. Energy Storage Technologies for Process Industries. 502
Table 154. Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Systems. 504
Table 155. Green Chemistry Metrics and Sustainability Indicators. 508
Table 156. Incentives and Support Mechanisms for Green Chemistry. 524
Table 157. Challenges in Regulating Emerging Technologies. 525
Table 158. International Cooperation and Harmonization Efforts. 528
Table 159. LDPE film versus PLA, 2019–24 (USD/tonne). 533
Table 160. PLA properties 534
Table 161. Applications, advantages and disadvantages of PHAs in packaging. 548
Table 162. Market overview for cellulose microfibers (microfibrillated cellulose) in paperboard and packaging-market age, key benefits, applications and producers. 552
Table 163. Applications of nanocrystalline cellulose (CNC). 553
Table 164. Market overview for cellulose nanofibers in packaging. 555
Table 165. Applications of Bacterial Nanocellulose in Packaging. 564
Table 166. Types of protein based-bioplastics, applications and companies. 566
Table 167. Overview of alginate-description, properties, application and market size. 569
Table 168. Companies developing algal-based bioplastics. 570
Table 169. Overview of mycelium fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 571
Table 170. Overview of chitosan-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 573
Table 171. Commercial Examples of Chitosan-based Films and Coatings and Companies. 574
Table 172. Bio-based naphtha markets and applications. 576
Table 173. Bio-naphtha market value chain. 577
Table 174. Commercial Examples of Bio-Naphtha Packaging and Companies. 578
Table 175. Bioplastics and biodegradable polymers market players. 581
Table 176. Biopesticides and Biocontrol Agents. 585
Table 177. Sustainable Agriculture Chemicals Market Players. 599
Table 178. Established bio-based construction materials. 603
Table 179. Types of self-healing concrete. 611
Table 180. Types of biobased aerogels. 623
Table 181. Sustainable Construction Materials Market Players. 624
Table 182. Natural and Bio-based Ingredients. 628
Table 183. Biodegradable polymers. 632
Table 184.Companies developing starch microspheres/microbeads. 634
Table 185. Companies developing microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) spheres/beads. 635
Table 186. Companies developing cellulose microbeads. 636
Table 187. CNC properties. 636
Table 188. Companies developing cellulose nanocrystal microbeads. 637
Table 189. Companies developing bacterial nanocellulose microbeads. 639
Table 190.Companies developing chitin microspheres/microbeads. 639
Table 191.Types of PHAs and properties. 641
Table 192. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) producers. 642
Table 193. Companies developing PHA for microbeads. 644
Table 194. PLA producers and production capacities. 645
Table 195. Technical lignin types and applications. 646
Table 196. Properties of lignins and their applications. 648
Table 197. Production capacities of technical lignin producers. 649
Table 198. Production capacities of biorefinery lignin producers. 650
Table 199. Companies developing lignin for microbeads (current or potential applications). 650
Table 200. Companies developing alginate for microbeads (current or potential applications). 652
Table 201. Green Cosmetics and Personal Care Market Players. 656
Table 202. Pros and cons of different type of food packaging materials. 661
Table 203. Active Biodegradable Films films and their food applications. 668
Table 204. Intelligent Biodegradable Films. 669
Table 205. Edible films and coatings market summary. 672
Table 206. Types of polyols. 675
Table 207. Polyol producers. 676
Table 208. Bio-based polyurethane coating products. 677
Table 209. Bio-based acrylate resin products. 679
Table 210. Polylactic acid (PLA) market analysis. 679
Table 211. Commercially available PHAs. 682
Table 212. Market overview for cellulose nanofibers in paints and coatings. 684
Table 213. Companies developing cellulose nanofibers products in paints and coatings. 686
Table 214. Types of protein based-biomaterials, applications and companies. 689
Table 215. CO2 utilization and removal pathways. 691
Table 216. CO2 utilization products developed by chemical and plastic producers. 694
Table 217. Sustainable packaging market players. 696
Table 218. Example envinronmentally friendly coatings, advantages and disadvantages. 700
Table 219. Plant Waxes. 707
Table 220. Types of alkyd resins and properties. 712
Table 221. Market summary for bio-based alkyd coatings-raw materials, advantages, disadvantages, applications and producers. 714
Table 222. Bio-based alkyd coating products. 715
Table 223. Types of polyols. 716
Table 224. Polyol producers. 717
Table 225. Bio-based polyurethane coating products. 718
Table 226. Market summary for bio-based epoxy resins. 720
Table 227. Bio-based polyurethane coating products. 722
Table 228. Bio-based acrylate resin products. 723
Table 229. Polylactic acid (PLA) market analysis. 724
Table 230. Market assessment for cellulose nanofibers in paints and coatings-application, key benefits and motivation for use, megatrends, market drivers, technology drawbacks, competing materials, material loading, main global paints and coatings OEMs. 728
Table 231. Companies developing CNF products in paints and coatings, applications targeted and stage of commercialization. 731
Table 232. Types of protein based-biomaterials, applications and companies. 740
Table 233. Overview of algal coatings-description, properties, application and market size. 742
Table 234. Companies developing algal-based plastics. 744
Table 235. Eco-friendly Paints and Coatings Market Players. 746
Table 236. Benefits of Green Electronics Manufacturing 751
Table 237. Challenges in adopting Green Electronics manufacturing. 752
Table 238. Key areas where the PCB industry can improve sustainability. 754
Table 239. Improving sustainability of PCB design. 755
Table 240. PCB design options for sustainability. 756
Table 241. Sustainability benefits and challenges associated with 3D printing. 759
Table 242. Conductive ink producers. 762
Table 243. Green and lead-free solder companies. 763
Table 244. Biodegradable substrates for PCBs. 764
Table 245. Overview of mycelium fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 765
Table 246. Application of lignin in composites. 767
Table 247. Properties of lignins and their applications. 768
Table 248. Properties of flexible electronics‐cellulose nanofiber film (nanopaper). 771
Table 249. Companies developing cellulose nanofibers for electronics. 771
Table 250. Commercially available PHAs. 774
Table 251. Main limitations of the FR4 material system used for manufacturing printed circuit boards (PCBs). 776
Table 252. Halogen-free FR4 companies. 778
Table 253. Properties of biobased PCBs. 779
Table 254. Applications of flexible (bio) polyimide PCBs. 781
Table 255. Main patterning and metallization steps in PCB fabrication and sustainable options. 784
Table 256. Sustainability issues with conventional metallization processes. 784
Table 257. Benefits of print-and-plate. 786
Table 258. Sustainable alternative options to standard plating resists used in printed circuit board (PCB) fabrication. 790
Table 259. Applications for laser induced forward transfer 791
Table 260. Copper versus silver inks in laser-induced forward transfer (LIFT) for electronics fabrication. 792
Table 261. Approaches for in-situ oxidation prevention. 792
Table 262. Market readiness and maturity of different lead-free solders and electrically conductive adhesives (ECAs) for electronics manufacturing. 795
Table 263. Advantages of green electroless plating. 795
Table 264. Comparison of component attachment materials. 800
Table 265. Comparison between sustainable and conventional component attachment materials for printed circuit boards 801
Table 266. Comparison between the SMAs and SMPs. 804
Table 267. Comparison of conductive biopolymers versus conventional materials for printed circuit board fabrication. 806
Table 268. Comparison of curing and reflow processes used for attaching components in electronics assembly. 806
Table 269. Low temperature solder alloys. 808
Table 270. Thermally sensitive substrate materials. 808
Table 271. Limitations of existing IC production. 814
Table 272. Strategies for improving sustainability in integrated circuit (IC) manufacturing. 815
Table 273. Comparison of oxidation methods and level of sustainability. 818
Table 274. Stage of commercialization for oxides. 819
Table 275. Alternative doping techniques. 823
Table 276. Metal content mg / Kg in Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) from waste desktop computers. 830
Table 277. Chemical recycling methods for handling electronic waste. 831
Table 278. Electrochemical processes for recycling metals from electronic waste 832
Table 279. Thermal recycling processes for electronic waste. 832
Table 280. Green Electronics Market Players. 834
Table 281. Properties and applications of the main natural fibres 838
Table 282. Types of sustainable alternative leathers. 846
Table 283. Properties of bio-based leathers. 848
Table 284. Comparison with conventional leathers. 850
Table 285. Price of commercially available sustainable alternative leather products. 852
Table 286. Comparative analysis of sustainable alternative leathers. 853
Table 287. Key processing steps involved in transforming plant fibers into leather materials. 854
Table 288. Current and emerging plant-based leather products. 858
Table 289. Companies developing plant-based leather products. 858
Table 290. Overview of mycelium-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 860
Table 291. Companies developing mycelium-based leather products. 865
Table 292. Types of microbial-derived leather alternative. 869
Table 293. Companies developing microbial leather products. 871
Table 294. Companies developing plant-based leather products. 874
Table 295. Types of protein-based leather alternatives. 875
Table 296. Companies developing protein based leather. 877
Table 297. Companies developing sustainable coatings and dyes for leather - 879
Table 298. Sustainable Textiles and Fibers Market Players. 880
Table 299. Biodiesel by generation. 885
Table 300. Biodiesel production techniques. 886
Table 301. Summary of pyrolysis technique under different operating conditions. 887
Table 302. Biomass materials and their bio-oil yield. 889
Table 303. Biofuel production cost from the biomass pyrolysis process. 889
Table 304. Properties of vegetable oils in comparison to diesel. 891
Table 305. Main producers of HVO and capacities. 892
Table 306. Example commercial Development of BtL processes. 893
Table 307. Pilot or demo projects for biomass to liquid (BtL) processes. 894
Table 308. Global biodiesel consumption, 2010-2035 (M litres/year). 899
Table 309. Global renewable diesel consumption, 2010-2035 (M litres/year). 904
Table 310. Renewable diesel price ranges. 905
Table 311. Advantages and disadvantages of Bio-aviation fuel. 906
Table 312. Production pathways for Bio-aviation fuel. 908
Table 313. Current and announced Bio-aviation fuel facilities and capacities. 911
Table 314. Global bio-jet fuel consumption 2019-2035 (Million litres/year). 912
Table 315. Bio-based naphtha markets and applications. 915
Table 316. Bio-naphtha market value chain. 916
Table 317. Bio-naphtha pricing against petroleum-derived naphtha and related fuel products. 917
Table 318. Bio-based Naphtha production capacities, by producer. 917
Table 319. Comparison of biogas, biomethane and natural gas. 923
Table 320. Processes in bioethanol production. 931
Table 321. Microorganisms used in CBP for ethanol production from biomass lignocellulosic. 932
Table 322. Ethanol consumption 2010-2035 (million litres). 933
Table 323. Biogas feedstocks. 938
Table 324. Existing and planned bio-LNG production plants. 947
Table 325. Methods for capturing carbon dioxide from biogas. 948
Table 326. Comparison of different Bio-H2 production pathways. 953
Table 327. Markets and applications for biohydrogen. 956
Table 328. Summary of gasification technologies. 962
Table 329. Overview of hydrothermal cracking for advanced chemical recycling. 968
Table 330. Applications of e-fuels, by type. 970
Table 331. Overview of e-fuels. 971
Table 332. Benefits of e-fuels. 971
Table 333. eFuel production facilities, current and planned. 976
Table 334. E-fuels companies. 977
Table 335. Algae-derived biofuel producers. 982
Table 336. Green ammonia projects (current and planned). 986
Table 337. Blue ammonia projects. 988
Table 338. Ammonia fuel cell technologies. 989
Table 339. Market overview of green ammonia in marine fuel. 991
Table 340. Summary of marine alternative fuels. 991
Table 341. Estimated costs for different types of ammonia. 993
Table 342. Main players in green ammonia. 994
Table 343. Typical composition and physicochemical properties reported for bio-oils and heavy petroleum-derived oils. 996
Table 344. Properties and characteristics of pyrolysis liquids derived from biomass versus a fuel oil. 996
Table 345. Main techniques used to upgrade bio-oil into higher-quality fuels. 998
Table 346. Markets and applications for bio-oil. 999
Table 347. Bio-oil producers. 999
Table 348. Key resource recovery technologies 1001
Table 349. Markets and end uses for refuse-derived fuels (RDF). 1003
Table 350. Bio-based lubricants. 1003
Table 351. Alternative Fuels and Lubricants Market Players. 1006
Table 352. Sustainable medical devices. 1044
Table 353. Sustainable Healthcare and Biomedicine Market Players. 1056
Table 354. Advanced Materials for 3D Printing. 1064
Table 355. Glossary of terms. 1107
Table 356. List of Abbreviations. 1108

List of Figures

Figure 1. CO2 emissions reduction pathway for the chemical sector. 73
Figure 2. Water extraction methods for natural products. 87
Figure 3. Circular economy model for the chemical industry. 99
Figure 4. Schematic layout of a pyrolysis plant. 103
Figure 5. Waste plastic production pathways to (A) diesel and (B) gasoline 108
Figure 6. Schematic for Pyrolysis of Scrap Tires. 112
Figure 7. Used tires conversion process. 113
Figure 8. Total syngas market by product in MM Nm³/h of Syngas, 2021. 117
Figure 9. Overview of biogas utilization. 118
Figure 10. Biogas and biomethane pathways. 119
Figure 11. Products obtained through the different solvolysis pathways of PET, PU, and PA. 123
Figure 12. Electroorganic Synthesis. 148
Figure 13. Digital Twin schematic. 160
Figure 14. CO2 non-conversion and conversion technology, advantages and disadvantages. 218
Figure 15. Applications for CO2. 220
Figure 16. Cost to capture one metric ton of carbon, by sector. 221
Figure 17. Life cycle of CO2-derived products and services. 227
Figure 18. Co2 utilization pathways and products. 230
Figure 19. Plasma technology configurations and their advantages and disadvantages for CO2 conversion. 234
Figure 20. Electrochemical CO₂ reduction products. 235
Figure 21. LanzaTech gas-fermentation process. 239
Figure 22. Schematic of biological CO2 conversion into e-fuels. 240
Figure 23. Econic catalyst systems. 243
Figure 24. Mineral carbonation processes. 246
Figure 25. Conversion route for CO2-derived fuels and chemical intermediates. 251
Figure 26. Conversion pathways for CO2-derived methane, methanol and diesel. 252
Figure 27. CO2 feedstock for the production of e-methanol. 259
Figure 28. Schematic illustration of (a) biophotosynthetic, (b) photothermal, (c) microbial-photoelectrochemical, (d) photosynthetic and photocatalytic (PS/PC), (e) photoelectrochemical (PEC), and (f) photovoltaic plus electrochemical (PV+EC) approaches for CO2 c 261
Figure 29. Audi synthetic fuels. 263
Figure 30. Conversion of CO2 into chemicals and fuels via different pathways. 268
Figure 31. Conversion pathways for CO2-derived polymeric materials 270
Figure 32. Conversion pathway for CO2-derived building materials. 274
Figure 33. Schematic of CCUS in cement sector. 275
Figure 34. Carbon8 Systems’ ACT process. 280
Figure 35. CO2 utilization in the Carbon Cure process. 281
Figure 36. Algal cultivation in the desert. 290
Figure 37. Example pathways for products from cyanobacteria. 293
Figure 38. Typical Flow Diagram for CO2 EOR. 296
Figure 39. Large CO2-EOR projects in different project stages by industry. 298
Figure 40. Carbon mineralization pathways. 301
Figure 41. Cell-free and cell-based protein synthesis systems. 345
Figure 42. CRISPR/Cas9 & Targeted Genome Editing. 372
Figure 43. Genetic Circuit-Assisted Smart Microbial Engineering. 380
Figure 44. Microbial Chassis Development for Natural Product Biosynthesis. 382
Figure 45. LanzaTech gas-fermentation process. 398
Figure 46. Schematic of biological CO2 conversion into e-fuels. 399
Figure 47. Overview of biogas utilization. 403
Figure 48. Biogas and biomethane pathways. 404
Figure 49. Schematic overview of anaerobic digestion process for biomethane production. 406
Figure 50. BLOOM masterbatch from Algix. 415
Figure 51. TRL of critical material extraction technologies. 433
Figure 52. Organization and morphology of cellulose synthesizing terminal complexes (TCs) in different organisms. 551
Figure 53. TEM image of cellulose nanocrystals. 552
Figure 54. CNC slurry. 553
Figure 55. CNF gel. 555
Figure 56. Bacterial nanocellulose shapes 563
Figure 57. BLOOM masterbatch from Algix. 570
Figure 58. Luum Temple, constructed from Bamboo. 603
Figure 59. Typical structure of mycelium-based foam. 607
Figure 60. Commercial mycelium composite construction materials. 607
Figure 61. Self-healing concrete test study with cracked concrete (left) and self-healed concrete after 28 days (right). 611
Figure 62. Self-healing bacteria crack filler for concrete. 612
Figure 63. Self-healing bio concrete. 613
Figure 64. Microalgae based biocement masonry bloc. 616
Figure 65. Types of bio-based materials used for antimicrobial food packaging application. 670
Figure 66. Water soluble packaging by Notpla. 674
Figure 67. Examples of edible films in food packaging. 675
Figure 68. Hefcel-coated wood (left) and untreated wood (right) after 30 seconds flame test. 688
Figure 69. Applications for CO2. 691
Figure 70. Life cycle of CO2-derived products and services. 693
Figure 71. Conversion pathways for CO2-derived polymeric materials 694
Figure 72. Schematic of production of powder coatings. 703
Figure 73. Organization and morphology of cellulose synthesizing terminal complexes (TCs) in different organisms. 706
Figure 74. Types of bio-based materials used for antimicrobial food packaging application. 736
Figure 75. BLOOM masterbatch from Algix. 743
Figure 76. Vapor degreasing. 755
Figure 77. Multi-layered PCB. 756
Figure 78. 3D printed PCB. 758
Figure 79. In-mold electronics prototype devices and products. 759
Figure 80. Silver nanocomposite ink after sintering and resin bonding of discrete electronic components. 761
Figure 81. Typical structure of mycelium-based foam. 767
Figure 82. Flexible electronic substrate made from CNF. 771
Figure 83. CNF composite. 772
Figure 84. Oji CNF transparent sheets. 772
Figure 85. Electronic components using cellulose nanofibers as insulating materials. 773
Figure 86. BLOOM masterbatch from Algix. 773
Figure 87. Dell's Concept Luna laptop. 782
Figure 88. Direct-write, precision dispensing, and 3D printing platform for 3D printed electronics. 788
Figure 89. 3D printed circuit boards from Nano Dimension. 788
Figure 90. Photonic sintering. 789
Figure 91. Laser-induced forward transfer (LIFT). 791
Figure 92. Material jetting 3d printing. 798
Figure 93. Material jetting 3d printing product. 799
Figure 94. The molecular mechanism of the shape memory effect under different stimuli. 805
Figure 95. Supercooled Soldering™ Technology. 810
Figure 96. Reflow soldering schematic. 811
Figure 97. Schematic diagram of induction heating reflow. 812
Figure 98. Fully-printed organic thin-film transistors and circuitry on one-micron-thick polymer films. 818
Figure 99. Types of PCBs after dismantling waste computers and monitors. 829
Figure 100. AlgiKicks sneaker, made with the Algiknit biopolymer gel. 844
Figure 101. Conceptual landscape of next-gen leather materials. 846
Figure 102. Typical structure of mycelium-based foam. 862
Figure 103. Hermès bag made of MycoWorks' mycelium leather. 865
Figure 104. Ganni blazer made from bacterial cellulose. 870
Figure 105. Bou Bag by GANNI and Modern Synthesis. 871
Figure 106. Regional production of biodiesel (billion litres). 884
Figure 107. Flow chart for biodiesel production. 890
Figure 108. Biodiesel (B20) average prices, current and historical, USD/litre. 897
Figure 109. Global biodiesel consumption, 2010-2035 (M litres/year). 899
Figure 110. SWOT analysis for renewable iesel. 902
Figure 111. Global renewable diesel consumption, 2010-2035 (M litres/year). 904
Figure 112. SWOT analysis for Bio-aviation fuel. 907
Figure 113. Global bio-jet fuel consumption to 2019-2035 (Million litres/year). 912
Figure 114. SWOT analysis for bio-naphtha. 915
Figure 115. Bio-based naphtha production capacities, 2018-2035 (tonnes). 919
Figure 116. SWOT analysis biomethanol. 921
Figure 117. Renewable Methanol Production Processes from Different Feedstocks. 922
Figure 118. Production of biomethane through anaerobic digestion and upgrading. 923
Figure 119. Production of biomethane through biomass gasification and methanation. 924
Figure 120. Production of biomethane through the Power to methane process. 925
Figure 121. SWOT analysis for ethanol. 927
Figure 122. Ethanol consumption 2010-2035 (million litres). 933
Figure 123. Properties of petrol and biobutanol. 935
Figure 124. Biobutanol production route. 936
Figure 125. Biogas and biomethane pathways. 938
Figure 126. Overview of biogas utilization. 940
Figure 127. Biogas and biomethane pathways. 941
Figure 128. Schematic overview of anaerobic digestion process for biomethane production. 943
Figure 129. Schematic overview of biomass gasification for biomethane production. 944
Figure 130. SWOT analysis for biogas. 945
Figure 131. Total syngas market by product in MM Nm³/h of Syngas, 2021. 950
Figure 132. SWOT analysis for biohydrogen. 953
Figure 133. Waste plastic production pathways to (A) diesel and (B) gasoline 959
Figure 134. Schematic for Pyrolysis of Scrap Tires. 960
Figure 135. Used tires conversion process. 961
Figure 136. Total syngas market by product in MM Nm³/h of Syngas, 2021. 964
Figure 137. Overview of biogas utilization. 965
Figure 138. Biogas and biomethane pathways. 966
Figure 139. Process steps in the production of electrofuels. 969
Figure 140. Mapping storage technologies according to performance characteristics. 970
Figure 141. Production process for green hydrogen. 973
Figure 142. E-liquids production routes. 974
Figure 143. Fischer-Tropsch liquid e-fuel products. 975
Figure 144. Resources required for liquid e-fuel production. 975
Figure 145. Pathways for algal biomass conversion to biofuels. 979
Figure 146. Algal biomass conversion process for biofuel production. 980
Figure 147. Classification and process technology according to carbon emission in ammonia production. 983
Figure 148. Green ammonia production and use. 985
Figure 149. Schematic of the Haber Bosch ammonia synthesis reaction. 987
Figure 150. Schematic of hydrogen production via steam methane reformation. 987
Figure 151. Estimated production cost of green ammonia. 993
Figure 152. Bio-oil upgrading/fractionation techniques. 998