The Global Hydrogen Market 2025-2035

1             INTRODUCTION          24

• 1.1        Hydrogen classification          24
• 1.2        Global energy demand and consumption  24
• 1.3        The hydrogen economy and production       25
• 1.4        Removing CO₂ emissions from hydrogen production          27
• 1.5        Hydrogen value chain              27
  • 1.5.1    Production       27
  • 1.5.2    Transport and storage              28
  • 1.5.3    Utilization         28
• 1.6        National hydrogen initiatives               30
• 1.7        Market challenges      31

2             HYDROGEN MARKET ANALYSIS         32

• 2.1        Industry developments 2020-2025 32
• 2.2        Market map    45
• 2.3        Global hydrogen production 47
  • 2.3.1    Industrial applications            48
  • 2.3.2    Hydrogen energy          49
    • 2.3.2.1 Stationary use               49
    • 2.3.2.2 Hydrogen for mobility               49
  • 2.3.3    Current Annual H2 Production           50
  • 2.3.4    Hydrogen production processes       51
    • 2.3.4.1 Hydrogen as by-product         51
    • 2.3.4.2 Reforming        52
      • 2.3.4.2.1           SMR wet method         52
      • 2.3.4.2.2           Oxidation of petroleum fractions     52
      • 2.3.4.2.3           Coal gasification         52
    • 2.3.4.3 Reforming or coal gasification with CO2 capture and storage      52
    • 2.3.4.4 Steam reforming of biomethane       52
    • 2.3.4.5 Water electrolysis       53
    • 2.3.4.6 The "Power-to-Gas" concept                54
    • 2.3.4.7 Fuel cell stack               56
    • 2.3.4.8 Electrolysers   57
    • 2.3.4.9 Other   58
      • 2.3.4.9.1           Plasma technologies 58
      • 2.3.4.9.2           Photosynthesis            59
      • 2.3.4.9.3           Bacterial or biological processes     59
      • 2.3.4.9.4           Oxidation (biomimicry)           60
  • 2.3.5    Production costs         61
  • 2.3.6    Global hydrogen demand forecasts               62
  • 2.3.7    Hydrogen Production in the United States  63
    • 2.3.7.1 Gulf Coast       63
    • 2.3.7.2 California         64
    • 2.3.7.3 Midwest             64
    • 2.3.7.4 Northeast         64
    • 2.3.7.5 Northwest        64
  • 2.3.8    DOE Hydrogen Hubs 65
  • 2.3.9    US Hydrogen Electrolyzer Capacities, Planned and Installed        66

3             TYPES OF HYDROGEN             69

• 3.1        Comparative analysis              69
• 3.2        Green hydrogen            69
  • 3.2.1    Overview           69
  • 3.2.2    Role in energy transition         69
  • 3.2.3    SWOT analysis              70
  • 3.2.4    Electrolyzer technologies      71
    • 3.2.4.1 Introduction    71
    • 3.2.4.2 Main types       72
    • 3.2.4.3 Balance of Plant          73
    • 3.2.4.4 Characteristics             75
    • 3.2.4.5 Advantages and disadvantages        77
    • 3.2.4.6 Electrolyzer market    77
      • 3.2.4.6.1           Market trends 77
      • 3.2.4.6.2           Market landscape       78
      • 3.2.4.6.3           Innovations     79
      • 3.2.4.6.4           Cost challenges           80
      • 3.2.4.6.5           Scale-up            80
      • 3.2.4.6.6           Manufacturing challenges    81
      • 3.2.4.6.7           Market opportunity and outlook        82
    • 3.2.4.7 Alkaline water electrolyzers (AWE)  82
      • 3.2.4.7.1           Technology description           82
      • 3.2.4.7.2           AWE plant        84
      • 3.2.4.7.3           Components and materials 85
      • 3.2.4.7.4           Costs  86
      • 3.2.4.7.5           Companies     86
    • 3.2.4.8 Anion exchange membrane electrolyzers (AEMEL)               87
      • 3.2.4.8.1           Technology description           87
      • 3.2.4.8.2           AEMEL plant   88
      • 3.2.4.8.3           Components and materials 89
      • 3.2.4.8.4           Costs  93
      • 3.2.4.8.5           Companies     94
    • 3.2.4.9 Proton exchange membrane electrolyzers (PEMEL)             94
      • 3.2.4.9.1           Technology description           94
      • 3.2.4.9.2           PEMEL plant   96
      • 3.2.4.9.3           Components and materials 97
      • 3.2.4.9.4           Costs  101
      • 3.2.4.9.5           Companies     101
    • 3.2.4.10            Solid oxide water electrolyzers (SOEC)         102
      • 3.2.4.10.1        Technology description           102
      • 3.2.4.10.2        SOEC plant     104
      • 3.2.4.10.3        Components and materials 105
    • 3.2.4.11            Other types     110
      • 3.2.4.11.1        Overview           110
      • 3.2.4.11.2        CO₂ electrolysis            111
      • 3.2.4.11.3        Seawater electrolysis               118
    • 3.2.4.12            Companies     122
  • 3.2.5    Costs  123
  • 3.2.6    Water and land use for green hydrogen production              126
  • 3.2.7    Electrolyzer manufacturing capacities         127
• 3.3        Blue hydrogen (low-carbon hydrogen)          131
  • 3.3.1    Overview           131
  • 3.3.2    Advantages over green hydrogen      131
  • 3.3.3    SWOT analysis              131
  • 3.3.4    Production technologies        132
    • 3.3.4.1 Steam-methane reforming (SMR)    132
    • 3.3.4.2 Autothermal reforming (ATR)               133
    • 3.3.4.3 Partial oxidation (POX)             134
    • 3.3.4.4 Sorption Enhanced Steam Methane Reforming (SE-SMR)               135
    • 3.3.4.5 Methane pyrolysis (Turquoise hydrogen)     136
    • 3.3.4.6 Coal gasification         137
    • 3.3.4.7 Advanced autothermal gasification (AATG)               140
    • 3.3.4.8 Biomass processes   140
    • 3.3.4.9 Microwave technologies         143
    • 3.3.4.10            Dry reforming 143
    • 3.3.4.11            Plasma Reforming      143
    • 3.3.4.12            Solar SMR        143
    • 3.3.4.13            Tri-Reforming of Methane      143
    • 3.3.4.14            Membrane-assisted reforming           144
    • 3.3.4.15            Catalytic partial oxidation (CPOX)    144
    • 3.3.4.16            Chemical looping combustion (CLC)            144
  • 3.3.5    Carbon capture            144
    • 3.3.5.1 Pre-Combustion vs. Post-Combustion carbon capture     144
    • 3.3.5.2 What is CCUS?             145
      • 3.3.5.2.1           Carbon Capture           151
    • 3.3.5.3 Carbon Utilization      155
      • 3.3.5.3.1           CO2 utilization pathways       156
    • 3.3.5.4 Carbon storage            156
    • 3.3.5.5 Transporting CO2        157
      • 3.3.5.5.1           Methods of CO2 transport    157
    • 3.3.5.6 Costs  160
    • 3.3.5.7 Market map    162
    • 3.3.5.8 Point-source carbon capture for blue hydrogen     164
      • 3.3.5.8.1           Transportation              165
      • 3.3.5.8.2           Global point source CO2 capture capacities           165
      • 3.3.5.8.3           By source          167
      • 3.3.5.8.4           By endpoint     168
      • 3.3.5.8.5           Main carbon capture processes        168
    • 3.3.5.9 Carbon utilization       174
      • 3.3.5.9.1           Benefits of carbon utilization              178
      • 3.3.5.9.2           Market challenges      179
      • 3.3.5.9.3           Co2 utilization pathways        180
      • 3.3.5.9.4           Conversion processes             182
  • 3.3.6    Market players               195
• 3.4        Pink hydrogen                196
  • 3.4.1    Overview           196
  • 3.4.2    Production       196
  • 3.4.3    Applications   197
  • 3.4.4    SWOT analysis              197
  • 3.4.5    Market players               198
• 3.5        Turquoise hydrogen   199
  • 3.5.1    Overview           199
  • 3.5.2    Production       199
  • 3.5.3    Applications   199
  • 3.5.4    SWOT analysis              200
  • 3.5.5    Market players               201

4             HYDROGEN STORAGE AND TRANSPORT    202

• 4.1        Market overview           202
• 4.2        Hydrogen transport methods              203
  • 4.2.1    Pipeline transportation           203
  • 4.2.2    Road or rail transport                203
  • 4.2.3    Maritime transportation         204
  • 4.2.4    On-board-vehicle transport 204
• 4.3        Hydrogen compression, liquefaction, storage         204
  • 4.3.1    Solid storage  205
  • 4.3.2    Liquid storage on support      205
  • 4.3.3    Underground storage               205
• 4.4        Market players               205

5             HYDROGEN UTILIZATION      208

• 5.1        Hydrogen Fuel Cells  208
  • 5.1.1    Market overview           208
  • 5.1.2    PEM fuel cells (PEMFCs)        208
  • 5.1.3    Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs)             209
  • 5.1.4    Alternative fuel cells  209
• 5.2        Alternative fuel production   210
  • 5.2.1    Solid Biofuels 210
  • 5.2.2    Liquid Biofuels              210
  • 5.2.3    Gaseous Biofuels       211
  • 5.2.4    Conventional Biofuels             211
  • 5.2.5    Advanced Biofuels     211
  • 5.2.6    Feedstocks      212
  • 5.2.7    Production of biodiesel and other biofuels 214
  • 5.2.8    Renewable diesel        214
  • 5.2.9    Biojet and sustainable aviation fuel (SAF)   215
  • 5.2.10 Electrofuels (E-fuels, power-to-gas/liquids/fuels) 218
    • 5.2.10.1            Hydrogen electrolysis               221
    • 5.2.10.2            eFuel production facilities, current and planned   223
• 5.3        Hydrogen Vehicles      227
  • 5.3.1    Market overview           227
  • 5.3.2    Commercialization    228
  • 5.3.3    Hydrogen Storage Options    230
  • 5.3.4    Key Challenges and Opportunities  230
• 5.4        Aviation              230
  • 5.4.1    Market overview           230
  • 5.4.2    Applications   231
  • 5.4.3    Hydrogen Technology Approaches in Aviation         232
  • 5.4.4    Hydrogen Storage Options    233
  • 5.4.5    Key Projects and Timelines   233
  • 5.4.6    Market and Adoption Forecasts         234
• 5.5        Ammonia production               235
  • 5.5.1    Introduction    235
  • 5.5.2    Decarbonisation of ammonia production  238
  • 5.5.3    Green ammonia synthesis methods              239
    • 5.5.3.1 Haber-Bosch process              240
    • 5.5.3.2 Biological nitrogen fixation   240
    • 5.5.3.3 Electrochemical production                241
    • 5.5.3.4 Chemical looping processes               241
  • 5.5.4    Blue ammonia              241
    • 5.5.4.1 Blue ammonia projects           241
  • 5.5.5    Chemical energy storage       242
    • 5.5.5.1 Ammonia fuel cells    242
    • 5.5.5.2 Marine fuel      243
  • 5.5.6    Applications   246
  • 5.5.7    Companies     247
  • 5.5.8    Market Forecasts        251
• 5.6        Methanol production                251
  • 5.6.1    Market overview           251
  • 5.6.2    Sources             253
  • 5.6.3    Methanol-to gasoline technology     254
    • 5.6.3.1 Production processes              255
      • 5.6.3.1.1           Anaerobic digestion  256
      • 5.6.3.1.2           Biomass gasification 256
      • 5.6.3.1.3           Power to Methane       257
  • 5.6.4    Applications   258
  • 5.6.5    Market Forecasts        259
  • 5.6.6    Companies     260
• 5.7        Steelmaking   262
  • 5.7.1    Market overview           262
  • 5.7.2    Comparative analysis              267
  • 5.7.3    Hydrogen Direct Reduced Iron (DRI)              268
  • 5.7.4    Applications   270
  • 5.7.5    Market Forecasts        271
  • 5.7.6    Companies     272
• 5.8        Power & heat generation         275
  • 5.8.1    Market overview           275
    • 5.8.1.1 Power generation        276
    • 5.8.1.2 Heat Generation          277
  • 5.8.2    Hydrogen Supply and Infrastructure for Power and Heat  278
  • 5.8.3    Roadmap         279
  • 5.8.4    Market Forecasts        280
  • 5.8.5    Companies     281
• 5.9        Maritime           284
  • 5.9.1    Introduction    284
  • 5.9.2    Applications   285
  • 5.9.3    Companies     286
  • 5.9.4    Production, Distribution and Infrastructure for Maritime Applications    289
  • 5.9.5    Market 289
• 5.10     Fuel cell trains              290
  • 5.10.1 Market overview           290
  • 5.10.2 Applications   291
  • 5.10.3 Companies     292
  • 5.10.4 Hydrogen Production, Distribution and Infrastructure for Rail Applications        295
  • 5.10.5 Market Forecasts        296
  • 5.10.6 Case studies  298

6             COMPANY PROFILES                299 (285 company profiles)

7             RESEARCH METHODOLOGY              483

8             REFERENCES 484

List of Tables

• Table 1. Hydrogen colour shades, Technology, cost, and CO2 emissions.           24
• Table 2. Main applications of hydrogen.       25
• Table 3. Overview of hydrogen production methods.          26
• Table 4. National hydrogen initiatives.           30
• Table 5. Market challenges in the hydrogen economy and production technologies.    31
• Table 6. Hydrogen industry developments 2020-2025       32
• Table 7. Market map for hydrogen technology and production.    45
• Table 8. Industrial applications of hydrogen.            48
• Table 9. Hydrogen energy markets and applications.          49
• Table 10. Hydrogen production processes and stage of development.   51
• Table 11. Estimated costs of clean hydrogen production.                61
• Table 12. US Hydrogen Electrolyzer Capacities, current and planned, as of May 2023, by region.        66
• Table 13. Comparison of hydrogen types     69
• Table 14.  Characteristics of typical water electrolysis technologies        75
• Table 15. Advantages and disadvantages of water electrolysis technologies.    77
• Table 16. Classifications of Alkaline Electrolyzers.               83
• Table 17. Advantages & limitations of AWE.               83
• Table 18. Key performance characteristics of AWE.             83
• Table 19. Companies in the AWE market.   86
• Table 20. Comparison of Commercial AEM Materials.       92
• Table 21. Companies in the AMEL market. 94
• Table 22. Companies in the PEMEL market.              101
• Table 23. Companies in the SOEC market. 109
• Table 24. Other types of electrolyzer technologies               110
• Table 25. Electrochemical CO₂ Reduction Technologies/ 113
• Table 26. Cost Comparison of CO₂ Electrochemical Technologies.          115
• Table 27. Companies developing other electrolyzer technologies.            122
• Table 28. Electrolyzer Installations Forecast (GW), 2020-2040.  128
• Table 29. Global market size for Electrolyzers, 2018-2035 (US$B).           129
• Table 30. Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) of main production technologies for blue hydrogen.     132
• Table 31. Key players in methane pyrolysis.              137
• Table 32. Commercial coal gasifier technologies. 138
• Table 33. Blue hydrogen projects using CG.              139
• Table 34. Biomass processes summary, process description and TRL.  140
• Table 35. Pathways for hydrogen production from biomass.          142
• Table 36. CO2 utilization and removal pathways    147
• Table 37. Approaches for capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) from point sources. 151
• Table 38. CO2 capture technologies.             152
• Table 39. Advantages and challenges of carbon capture technologies. 153
• Table 40. Overview of commercial materials and processes utilized in carbon capture.             153
• Table 41. Methods of CO2 transport.             158
• Table 42. Carbon capture, transport, and storage cost per unit of CO2  160
• Table 43. Estimated capital costs for commercial-scale carbon capture.             161
• Table 44. Point source examples.     164
• Table 45. Assessment of carbon capture materials              169
• Table 46. Chemical solvents used in post-combustion.   171
• Table 47. Commercially available physical solvents for pre-combustion carbon capture.        174
• Table 48. Carbon utilization revenue forecast by product (US$). 178
• Table 49. CO2 utilization and removal pathways.  178
• Table 50. Market challenges for CO2 utilization.    180
• Table 51. Example CO2 utilization pathways.           180
• Table 52. CO2 derived products via Thermochemical conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages.            183
• Table 53. Electrochemical CO₂ reduction products.            186
• Table 54. CO2 derived products via electrochemical conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages.            187
• Table 55. CO2 derived products via biological conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages.                190
• Table 56. Companies developing and producing CO2-based polymers. 192
• Table 57. Companies developing mineral carbonation technologies.      194
• Table 58. Market players in blue hydrogen. 195
• Table 59. Market players in pink hydrogen. 198
• Table 60. Market players in turquoise hydrogen.    201
• Table 61. Market overview-hydrogen storage and transport.          202
• Table 62. Summary of different methods of hydrogen transport. 203
• Table 63. Market players in hydrogen storage and transport.         206
• Table 64. Market overview hydrogen fuel cells-applications, market players and market challenges.                208
• Table 65. Categories and examples of solid biofuel.            210
• Table 66. Comparison of biofuels and e-fuels to fossil and electricity.     212
• Table 67. Classification of biomass feedstock.       212
• Table 68. Biorefinery feedstocks.     213
• Table 69. Feedstock conversion pathways.                213
• Table 70. Biodiesel production techniques.              214
• Table 71. Advantages and disadvantages of biojet fuel      215
• Table 72. Production pathways for bio-jet fuel.       216
• Table 73. Applications of e-fuels, by type.   219
• Table 74. Overview of e-fuels.             220
• Table 75. Benefits of e-fuels.               220
• Table 76. eFuel production facilities, current and planned.            223
• Table 77. Market overview for hydrogen vehicles-applications, market players and market challenges.                227
• Table 78. Markets, Applications and Companies in Hydrogen Vehicles. 228
• Table 79. Technology Comparison for Hydrogen Vehicles.              229
• Table 80. Hydrogen Storage Options.            230
• Table 81.  Key Challenges and Opportunities.          230
• Table 82. Markets, Applications and Companies in Hydrogen Aviation   231
• Table 83. Hydrogen Technology Approaches in Aviation.  232
• Table 84. Hydrogen Storage Options for Aviation.  233
• Table 85. Key Projects and Timelines.           233
• Table 86. Market and Adoption Forecasts. 234
• Table 87. Ammonia Production Technologies Using Hydrogen.    235
• Table 88. Economic Analysis of Ammonia Production from Hydrogen.   237
• Table 89. Hydrogen Production, Distribution and Infrastructure for Ammonia Synthesis.          239
• Table 90. Blue ammonia projects.   241
• Table 91. Technical Comparison of Ammonia Production Methods.         241
• Table 92. Ammonia fuel cell technologies. 242
• Table 93. Market overview of green ammonia in marine fuel.         243
• Table 94. Summary of marine alternative fuels.      244
• Table 95. Estimated costs for different types of ammonia.             245
• Table 96. Comparative Lifecycle Analysis of Ammonia Production Pathways.   246
• Table 97. End-Use Applications for Ammonia Produced from Hydrogen.              246
• Table 98. Companies in Ammonia from Hydrogen Production.    247
• Table 99. Notable Ammonia from Hydrogen Projects.        249
• Table 100. Market Forecasts for Ammonia from Hydrogen.             251
• Table 101. Methanol Production Technologies Using Hydrogen. 252
• Table 102. Economic Analysis of Methanol Production from Hydrogen. 253
• Table 103. Hydrogen and Carbon Sources for Methanol Production.       253
• Table 104. Comparison of biogas, biomethane and natural gas. 255
• Table 105. Technical Comparison of Methanol Production Methods.      257
• Table 106. End-Use Applications for Methanol from Hydrogen.   258
• Table 107. Market Forecasts for Methanol from Hydrogen.             259
• Table 108. Companies in Methanol from Hydrogen Production.  260
• Table 109. Notable Methanol from Hydrogen Projects.      261
• Table 110. Hydrogen-Based Steelmaking Technologies.   262
• Table 111. Economic Analysis of Hydrogen Steelmaking. 264
• Table 112. Hydrogen-based steelmaking technologies.    266
• Table 113. Comparison of green steel production technologies. 267
• Table 114. Technical Comparison of Steel Production Routes.    268
• Table 115. Advantages and disadvantages of each potential hydrogen carrier. 269
• Table 116. Hydrogen Supply and Infrastructure for Steelmaking.               269
• Table 117. Applications and Market Analysis for Low-Carbon Steel.         270
• Table 118. Market Forecasts for Hydrogen Steelmaking.  271
• Table 119. Companies in Hydrogen Steelmaking. 272
• Table 120. Notable Hydrogen Steelmaking Projects.           273
• Table 121. Hydrogen Power and Heat Generation Technologies. 275
• Table 122. Technical Comparison of Power Generation Technologies.    276
• Table 123. Technical Comparison of Heat Generation Technologies.       277
• Table 124. Hydrogen Supply and Infrastructure for Power and Heat.        278
• Table 125. Technological Roadmap for power & heat generation.               279
• Table 126. Market Forecasts for Hydrogen in Power and Heat.      280
• Table 127. Companies in Hydrogen Power and Heat Generation.               281
• Table 128. Notable Hydrogen Power and Heat Generation Projects.         282
• Table 129. Technical Comparison of Hydrogen and Alternative Maritime Fuels 284
• Table 130. Economic Analysis of Maritime Hydrogen Implementation    285
• Table 131. Maritime Hydrogen Applications by Segment. 285
• Table 132. Companies in Maritime Hydrogen.         287
• Table 133. Notable Maritime Hydrogen Projects.   288
• Table 134. Hydrogen Production, Distribution and Infrastructure for Maritime Applications.  289
• Table 135. Market Forecasts for Maritime Hydrogen.          289
• Table 136. Technical Comparison of Rail Propulsion Technologies.          290
• Table 137. Economic Analysis of Fuel Cell Train Implementation.              291
• Table 138. Fuel Cell Train Applications by Segment.            291
• Table 139. Companies in Fuel Cell Train Development.     293
• Table 140. Notable Fuel Cell Train Projects.              294
• Table 141. Hydrogen Production, Distribution and Infrastructure for Rail Applications.              295
• Table 142. Market Forecasts for Fuel Cell Trains.   296
• Table 143. Comparison of Regional Hydrogen Train Markets.        296
• Table 144. Case Studies - Operational Performance of Fuel Cell Trains. 298

List of Figures

• Figure 1. Hydrogen value chain.        29
• Figure 2. Current Annual H2 Production.     50
• Figure 3. Principle of a PEM electrolyser.     54
• Figure 4. Power-to-gas concept.        56
• Figure 5. Schematic of a fuel cell stack.      57
• Figure 6. High pressure electrolyser - 1 MW.             58
• Figure 7. Global hydrogen demand forecast.            62
• Figure 8. U.S. Hydrogen Production by Producer Type.       63
• Figure 9. Segmentation of regional hydrogen production capacities in the US. 65
• Figure 10. Current of planned installations of Electrolyzers over 1MW in the US.             66
• Figure 11. SWOT analysis: green hydrogen.               71
• Figure 12. Types of electrolysis technologies.          72
• Figure 13. Typical Balance of Plant including Gas processing.     74
• Figure 14. Schematic of alkaline water electrolysis working principle.    84
• Figure 15. Alkaline water electrolyzer.            85
• Figure 16. Typical system design and balance of plant for an AEM electrolyser.                89
• Figure 17. Schematic of PEM water electrolysis working principle.            95
• Figure 18. Typical system design and balance of plant for a PEM electrolyser.   97
• Figure 19. Schematic of solid oxide water electrolysis working principle.             103
• Figure 20. Typical system design and balance of plant for a solid oxide electrolyser.     104
• Figure 21. Estimated annual electrolyser manufacturing capacity, by manufacture's headquarters (a) and by type and origin (b), 2021-2024.         128
• Figure 22. Electrolyzer Installations Forecast (GW), 2020-2040. 129
• Figure 23. Global market size for Electrolyzers, 2018-2035 (US$B)           130
• Figure 24. SWOT analysis: blue hydrogen.  132
• Figure 25. SMR process flow diagram of steam methane reforming with carbon capture and storage (SMR-CCS).    133
• Figure 26. Process flow diagram of autothermal reforming with a carbon capture and storage (ATR-CCS) plant.  134
• Figure 27. POX process flow diagram.          135
• Figure 28. Process flow diagram for a typical SE-SMR.       136
• Figure 29. HiiROC’s methane pyrolysis reactor.      136
• Figure 30. Coal gasification (CG) process. 138
• Figure 31. Flow diagram of Advanced autothermal gasification (AATG). 140
• Figure 32. Schematic of CCUS process.      146
• Figure 33. Pathways for CO2 utilization and removal.         147
• Figure 34. A pre-combustion capture system.         152
• Figure 35. Carbon dioxide utilization and removal cycle.  155
• Figure 36. Various pathways for CO2 utilization.    156
• Figure 37. Example of underground carbon dioxide storage.         157
• Figure 38. Transport of CCS technologies. 158
• Figure 39. Railroad car for liquid CO₂ transport       160
• Figure 40. Estimated costs of capture of one metric ton of carbon dioxide (Co2) by sector.     162
• Figure 41. CCUS market map.            164
• Figure 42. Global capacity of point-source carbon capture and storage facilities.          166
• Figure 43. Global carbon capture capacity by CO2 source, 2021.             167
• Figure 44. Global carbon capture capacity by CO2 source.            167
• Figure 45. Global carbon capture capacity by CO2 endpoint.       168
• Figure 46. Post-combustion carbon capture process.        170
• Figure 47. Postcombustion CO2 Capture in a Coal-Fired Power Plant.   171
• Figure 48. Oxy-combustion carbon capture process.         172
• Figure 49. Liquid or supercritical CO2 carbon capture process.  173
• Figure 50. Pre-combustion carbon capture process.          173
• Figure 51. CO2 non-conversion and conversion technology, advantages and disadvantages.               174
• Figure 52. Applications for CO2.       177
• Figure 53. Cost to capture one metric ton of carbon, by sector.   177
• Figure 54. Life cycle of CO2-derived products and services.          179
• Figure 55. Co2 utilization pathways and products.               182
• Figure 56. Plasma technology configurations and their advantages and disadvantages for CO2 conversion.     186
• Figure 57. LanzaTech gas-fermentation process.   189
• Figure 58. Schematic of biological CO2 conversion into e-fuels. 190
• Figure 59. Econic catalyst systems.                192
• Figure 60. Mineral carbonation processes. 194
• Figure 61. Pink hydrogen Production Pathway.         196
• Figure 62. SWOT analysis: pink hydrogen    198
• Figure 63. Turquoise hydrogen Production Pathway.            199
• Figure 64. SWOT analysis: turquoise hydrogen        201
• Figure 65. Process steps in the production of electrofuels.             218
• Figure 66. Mapping storage technologies according to performance characteristics.  219
• Figure 67. Production process for green hydrogen.              221
• Figure 68. E-liquids production routes.        222
• Figure 69. Fischer-Tropsch liquid e-fuel products. 222
• Figure 70. Resources required for liquid e-fuel production.            223
• Figure 71. Levelized cost and fuel-switching CO2 prices of e-fuels.          225
• Figure 72. Cost breakdown for e-fuels.         226
• Figure 73. Hydrogen fuel cell powered EV.  227
• Figure 74. Green ammonia production and use.    237
• Figure 75. Classification and process technology according to carbon emission in ammonia production.     238
• Figure 76. Schematic of the Haber Bosch ammonia synthesis reaction.               240
• Figure 77. Schematic of hydrogen production via steam methane reformation.               240
• Figure 78. Estimated production cost of green ammonia.               245
• Figure 79. Renewable Methanol Production Processes from Different Feedstocks.       255
• Figure 80. Production of biomethane through anaerobic digestion and upgrading.        256
• Figure 81. Production of biomethane through biomass gasification and methanation.               257
• Figure 82. Production of biomethane through the Power to methane process.  257
• Figure 83. Transition to hydrogen-based production.          265
• Figure 84. CO2 emissions from steelmaking (tCO2/ton crude steel).       266
• Figure 85. Hydrogen Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) process.  269
• Figure 86. Three Gorges Hydrogen Boat No. 1.         286
• Figure 87. PESA hydrogen-powered shunting locomotive.               293
• Figure 88. Symbiotic™ technology process.               300
• Figure 89. Alchemr AEM electrolyzer cell.   306
• Figure 90. HyCS® technology system.           308
• Figure 91. Fuel cell module FCwave™.            316
• Figure 92. Direct Air Capture Process.          323
• Figure 93. CRI process.           324
• Figure 94. Croft system.         335
• Figure 95. ECFORM electrolysis reactor schematic.            340
• Figure 96. Domsjö process.  341
• Figure 97. EH Fuel Cell Stack.             344
• Figure 98. Direct MCH® process.      348
• Figure 99. Electriq's dehydrogenation system.        351
• Figure 100. Endua Power Bank.         353
• Figure 101. EL 2.1 AEM Electrolyser.               354
• Figure 102. Enapter – Anion Exchange Membrane (AEM) Water Electrolysis.       355
• Figure 103. Direct MCH® process.   356
• Figure 104. Hyundai Class 8 truck fuels at a First Element high capacity mobile refueler.          362
• Figure 105. FuelPositive system.       365
• Figure 106. Using electricity from solar power to produce green hydrogen.         370
• Figure 107. Hydrogen Storage Module.         380
• Figure 108. Plug And Play Stationery Storage Units.             381
• Figure 109. Left: a typical single-stage electrolyzer design, with a membrane separating the hydrogen and oxygen gasses. Right: the two-stage E-TAC process. 384
• Figure 110. Hystar PEM electrolyser.               400
• Figure 111. KEYOU-H2-Technology. 408
• Figure 112. Audi/Krajete unit.              410
• Figure 113. OCOchem’s Carbon Flux Electrolyzer.                430
• Figure 114.  CO2 hydrogenation to jet fuel range hydrocarbons process.              433
• Figure 115. The Plagazi ® process.    439
• Figure 116. Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell.               442
• Figure 117. Sunfire process for Blue Crude production.    459
• Figure 118. CALF-20 has been integrated into a rotating CO2 capture machine (left), which operates inside a CO2 plant module (right).   462
• Figure 119. Tevva hydrogen truck.    467
• Figure 120. Topsoe's SynCORTM autothermal reforming technology.      470
• Figure 121. O12 Reactor.        474
• Figure 122. Sunglasses with lenses made from CO2-derived materials.               475
• Figure 123. CO2 made car part.        475
• Figure 124. The Velocys process.     476
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The Global Hydrogen Market 2025-2035

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