Global Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS) Market 2025-2045

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1             EXECUTIVE SUMMARY            33

• 1.1        Main sources of carbon dioxide emissions 33
• 1.2        CO2 as a commodity                34
• 1.3        Meeting climate targets          37
• 1.4        Market drivers and trends      38
• 1.5        The current market and future outlook         38
• 1.6        CCUS Industry developments 2020-2025 39
• 1.7        CCUS investments     44
  • 1.7.1    Venture Capital Funding         45
  • 1.7.1.1 2010-2023      45
  • 1.7.1.2 CCUS VC deals 2022-2025  46
• 1.8        Government CCUS initiatives             49
  • 1.8.1    North America              49
  • 1.8.2    Europe                50
  • 1.8.3    Asia      50
    • 1.8.3.1 Japan  51
    • 1.8.3.2 Singapore         51
    • 1.8.3.3 China  51
• 1.9        Market map    53
• 1.10     Commercial CCUS facilities and projects  56
  • 1.10.1 Facilities           56
    • 1.10.1.1            Operational     56
    • 1.10.1.2            Under development/construction    58
• 1.11     CCUS Value Chain     64
• 1.12     Key market barriers for CCUS             64
• 1.13     Carbon pricing              65
  • 1.13.1 Compliance Carbon Pricing Mechanisms  66
  • 1.13.2 Alternative to Carbon Pricing: 45Q Tax Credits        67
  • 1.13.3 Business models         69
  • 1.13.4 The European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS)  70
  • 1.13.5 Carbon Pricing in the US        71
  • 1.13.6 Carbon Pricing in China          71
  • 1.13.7 Voluntary Carbon Markets    72
  • 1.13.8 Challenges with Carbon Pricing        73
• 1.14     Global market forecasts         74
  • 1.14.1 CCUS capture capacity forecast by end point         74
  • 1.14.2 Capture capacity by region to 2045, Mtpa  75
  • 1.14.3 Revenues          75
  • 1.14.4 CCUS capacity forecast by capture type     75
  • 1.14.5 Cost projections 2025-2045 77

 

2             INTRODUCTION          78

• 2.1        What is CCUS?             78
• 2.1.1    Carbon Capture           83
• 2.1.1.1 Source Characterization        84
• 2.1.1.2 Purification      84
• 2.1.1.3 CO2 capture technologies    85
• 2.1.2    Carbon Utilization      88
• 2.1.2.1 CO2 utilization pathways       89
• 2.1.3    Carbon storage            89
• 2.1.3.1 Passive storage            89
• 2.1.3.2 Enhanced oil recovery              90
• 2.2        Transporting CO2        91
• 2.2.1    Methods of CO2 transport    91
• 2.2.1.1 Pipeline              92
• 2.2.1.2 Ship      92
• 2.2.1.3 Road    93
• 2.2.1.4 Rail       93
• 2.2.2    Safety  93
• 2.3        Costs  94
• 2.3.1    Cost of CO2 transport              95
• 2.4        Carbon credits              97
• 2.5        Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of CCUS Technologies           98
• 2.6        Environmental Impact Assessment                99
• 2.7        Social acceptance and public perception  101

 

3             CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE               102

3.1        CO₂ capture technologies     103

3.2        >90% capture rate      105

3.3        99% capture rate         105

3.4        CO2 capture from point sources      107

3.4.1    Energy Availability and Costs              110

3.4.2    Power plants with CCUS        110

3.4.3    Transportation              111

3.4.4    Global point source CO2 capture capacities           112

3.4.5    By source          112

3.4.6    Blue hydrogen               114

3.4.6.1 Steam-methane reforming (SMR)    115

3.4.6.2 Autothermal reforming (ATR)               115

3.4.6.3 Partial oxidation (POX)             116

3.4.6.4 Sorption Enhanced Steam Methane Reforming (SE-SMR)               117

3.4.6.5 Pre-Combustion vs. Post-Combustion carbon capture     118

3.4.6.6 Blue hydrogen projects            119

3.4.6.7 Costs  119

3.4.6.8 Market players               120

3.4.7    Carbon capture in cement    121

3.4.7.1 CCUS Projects              122

3.4.7.2 Carbon capture technologies             123

3.4.7.3 Costs  124

3.4.7.4 Challenges      124

3.4.8    Maritime carbon capture       125

3.5        Main carbon capture processes        125

3.5.1    Materials           125

3.5.2    Post-combustion        127

3.5.2.1 Chemicals/Solvents  128

3.5.2.2 Amine-based post-combustion CO₂ absorption    130

3.5.2.3 Physical absorption solvents              130

3.5.3    Oxy-fuel combustion                133

3.5.3.1 Oxyfuel CCUS cement projects         134

3.5.3.2 Chemical Looping-Based Capture  135

3.5.4    Liquid or supercritical CO2: Allam-Fetvedt Cycle  136

3.5.5    Pre-combustion           137

3.6        Carbon separation technologies       138

3.6.1    Absorption capture    139

3.6.2    Adsorption capture    143

3.6.2.1 Solid sorbent-based CO₂ separation             144

3.6.2.2 Metal organic framework (MOF) adsorbents             146

3.6.2.3 Zeolite-based adsorbents     146

3.6.2.4 Solid amine-based adsorbents         146

3.6.2.5 Carbon-based adsorbents   147

3.6.2.6 Polymer-based adsorbents  148

3.6.2.7 Solid sorbents in pre-combustion   148

3.6.2.8 Sorption Enhanced Water Gas Shift (SEWGS)          149

3.6.2.9 Solid sorbents in post-combustion 150

3.6.3    Membranes    152

3.6.3.1 Membrane-based CO₂ separation   153

3.6.3.2 Post-combustion CO₂ capture           156

3.6.3.2.1           Facilitated transport membranes    156

3.6.3.3 Pre-combustion capture        157

3.6.4    Liquid or supercritical CO2 (Cryogenic) capture    158

3.6.4.1 Cryogenic CO₂ capture            158

3.6.5    Calcium Looping         160

3.6.5.1 Calix Advanced Calciner        160

3.6.6    Other technologies    161

3.6.6.1 LEILAC process            162

3.6.6.2 CO₂ capture with Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) 162

3.6.6.3 CO₂ capture with Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs) 163

3.6.6.4 Microalgae Carbon Capture 164

3.6.7    Comparison of key separation technologies             165

3.6.8    Technology readiness level (TRL) of gas separation technologies               166

3.7        Opportunities and barriers   166

3.8        Costs of CO2 capture               168

3.9        CO2 capture capacity              169

3.10     Direct air capture (DAC)         172

3.10.1 Technology description           172

3.10.1.1            Sorbent-based CO2 Capture               172

3.10.1.2            Solvent-based CO2 Capture                172

3.10.1.3            DAC Solid Sorbent Swing Adsorption Processes    173

3.10.1.4            Electro-Swing Adsorption (ESA) of CO2 for DAC     173

3.10.1.5            Solid and liquid DAC 174

3.10.2 Advantages of DAC    175

3.10.3 Deployment    176

3.10.4 Point source carbon capture versus Direct Air Capture     177

3.10.5 Technologies  177

3.10.5.1            Solid sorbents               179

3.10.5.2            Liquid sorbents            181

3.10.5.3            Liquid solvents             182

3.10.5.4            Airflow equipment integration            182

3.10.5.5            Passive Direct Air Capture (PDAC)   182

3.10.5.6            Direct conversion        183

3.10.5.7            Co-product generation            183

3.10.5.8            Low Temperature DAC             183

3.10.5.9            Regeneration methods            183

3.10.6 Electricity and Heat Sources               184

3.10.7 Commercialization and plants           184

3.10.8 Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) in DAC  185

3.10.9 DAC plants and projects-current and planned        186

3.10.10              Capacity forecasts     192

3.10.11              Costs  193

3.10.12              Market challenges for DAC   199

3.10.13              Market prospects for direct air capture        200

3.10.14              Players and production           202

3.10.15              Co2 utilization pathways        202

3.10.16              Markets for Direct Air Capture and Storage (DACCS)          204

3.10.16.1         Fuels    205

3.10.16.1.1     Overview           205

3.10.16.1.2     Production routes       207

3.10.16.1.3     Methanol          207

3.10.16.1.4     Algae based biofuels 208

3.10.16.1.5     CO₂-fuels from solar 209

3.10.16.1.6     Companies     211

3.10.16.1.7     Challenges      213

3.10.16.2         Chemicals, plastics and polymers  213

3.10.16.2.1     Overview           213

3.10.16.2.2     Scalability        214

3.10.16.2.3     Plastics and polymers              215

3.10.16.2.3.1 CO2 utilization products        216

3.10.16.2.4     Urea production           217

3.10.16.2.5     Inert gas in semiconductor manufacturing 217

3.10.16.2.6     Carbon nanotubes     217

3.10.16.2.7     Companies     217

3.10.16.3         Construction materials           219

3.10.16.3.1     Overview           219

3.10.16.3.2     CCUS technologies   220

3.10.16.3.3     Carbonated aggregates          222

3.10.16.3.4     Additives during mixing           224

3.10.16.3.5     Concrete curing           224

3.10.16.3.6     Costs  224

3.10.16.3.7     Companies     224

3.10.16.3.8     Challenges      226

3.10.16.4         CO2 Utilization in Biological Yield-Boosting              227

3.10.16.4.1     Overview           227

3.10.16.4.2     Applications   227

3.10.16.4.2.1 Greenhouses 227

3.10.16.4.2.2 Algae cultivation          227

3.10.16.4.2.3 Microbial conversion 227

3.10.16.4.3     Companies     229

3.10.16.5         Food and feed production     230

3.10.16.6         CO₂ Utilization in Enhanced Oil Recovery   230

3.10.16.6.1     Overview           230

3.10.16.6.1.1 Process              231

3.10.16.6.1.2 CO₂ sources   232

3.10.16.6.2     CO₂-EOR facilities and projects         232

3.11     Hybrid Capture Systems        234

3.12     Artificial Intelligence in Carbon Capture      235

3.13     Integration with Renewable Energy Systems             237

3.14     Mobile Carbon Capture Solutions   238

3.15     Carbon Capture Retrofitting 239

4             CARBON DIOXIDE REMOVAL              240

4.1        Conventional CDR on land   241

4.1.1    Wetland and peatland restoration   241

4.1.2    Cropland, grassland, and agroforestry         242

4.2        Technological CDR Solutions              242

4.3        Main CDR methods   243

4.4        Novel CDR methods 244

4.5        Technology Readiness Level (TRL): Carbon Dioxide Removal Methods   245

4.6        Carbon Credits             246

4.6.1    CO2 Utilization             246

4.6.2    Biochar and Agricultural Products   247

4.6.3    Renewable Energy Generation           247

4.6.4    Ecosystem Services  247

4.7        Types of Carbon Credits         248

4.7.1    Voluntary Carbon Credits      248

4.7.2    Compliance Carbon Credits                249

4.7.3    Corporate commitments       251

4.7.4    Increasing government support and regulations    251

4.7.5    Advancements in carbon offset project verification and monitoring        252

4.7.6    Potential for blockchain technology in carbon credit trading         252

4.7.7    Prices  253

4.7.8    Buying and Selling Carbon Credits  255

4.7.8.1 Carbon credit exchanges and trading platforms     255

4.7.8.2 Over-the-counter (OTC) transactions            255

4.7.8.3 Pricing mechanisms and factors affecting carbon credit prices  256

4.7.9    Certification    256

4.7.10 Challenges and risks 256

4.8        Value chain     257

4.9        Monitoring, reporting, and verification          258

4.10     Government policies 259

4.11     Bioenergy with Carbon Removal and Storage (BiCRS)       260

4.11.1 Advantages     260

4.11.2 Challenges      262

4.11.3 Costs  262

4.11.4 Feedstocks      264

4.12     BECCS               265

4.12.1 Technology overview 265

4.12.1.1            Point Source Capture Technologies for BECCS       267

4.12.1.2            Energy efficiency         267

4.12.1.3            Heat generation           267

4.12.1.4            Waste-to-Energy          268

4.12.1.5            Blue Hydrogen Production    268

4.12.2 Biomass conversion 268

4.12.3 CO₂ capture technologies     269

4.12.4 BECCS facilities           271

4.12.5 Cost analysis 272

4.12.6 BECCS carbon credits             272

4.12.7 Sustainability 273

4.12.8 Challenges      273

4.13     Enhanced Weathering              274

4.13.1 Overview           275

4.13.1.1            Role of enhanced weathering in carbon dioxide removal 276

4.13.1.2            CO₂ mineralization     276

4.13.2 Enhanced Weathering Processes and Materials    277

4.13.3 Enhanced Weathering Applications               277

4.13.4 Trends and Opportunities      278

4.13.5 Challenges and Risks               278

4.13.6 Cost analysis 279

4.13.7 SWOT analysis              279

4.14     Afforestation/Reforestation  280

4.14.1 Overview           280

4.14.2 Carbon dioxide removal methods    280

4.14.3 Projects             283

4.14.4 Remote sensing in A/R             283

4.14.5 Robotics           283

4.14.6 Trends and Opportunities      285

4.14.7 Challenges and Risks               286

4.14.8 SWOT analysis              286

4.15     Soil carbon sequestration (SCS)       287

4.15.1 Overview           287

4.15.2 Practices           288

4.15.3 Measuring and Verifying         289

4.15.4 Trends and Opportunities      291

4.15.5 Carbon credits              291

4.15.6 Challenges and Risks               292

4.15.7 SWOT analysis              292

4.16     Biochar              294

4.16.1 What is biochar?         294

4.16.2 Carbon sequestration              296

4.16.3 Properties of biochar 296

4.16.4 Feedstocks      299

4.16.5 Production processes              299

4.16.5.1            Sustainable production          300

4.16.5.2            Pyrolysis            301

4.16.5.2.1        Slow pyrolysis               301

4.16.5.2.2        Fast pyrolysis 302

4.16.5.3            Gasification    303

4.16.5.4            Hydrothermal carbonization (HTC)  303

4.16.5.5            Torrefaction     303

4.16.5.6            Equipment manufacturers   304

4.16.6 Biochar pricing             305

4.16.7 Biochar carbon credits            305

4.16.7.1            Overview           305

4.16.7.2            Removal and reduction credits          306

4.16.7.3            The advantage of biochar      306

4.16.7.4            Prices  306

4.16.7.5            Buyers of biochar credits       307

4.16.7.6            Competitive materials and technologies    307

4.16.8 Bio-oil based CDR      308

4.16.9 Biomass burial for CO₂ removal        309

4.16.10              Bio-based construction materials for CDR 310

4.16.11              SWOT analysis              311

4.17     Ocean-based CDR     312

4.17.1 Overview           312

4.17.2 Ocean pumps               313

4.17.3 CO₂ capture from seawater  314

4.17.4 Ocean fertilisation      314

4.17.5 Coastal blue carbon 316

4.17.6 Algal cultivation            317

4.17.7 Artificial upwelling      317

4.17.8 MRV for marine CDR 318

4.17.9 Ocean alkalinisation 319

4.17.10              Ocean alkalinity enhancement (OAE)            319

4.17.11              Electrochemical ocean alkalinity enhancement    320

4.17.12              Direct ocean capture technology     321

4.17.13              Artificial downwelling               322

4.17.14              Trends and Opportunities      322

4.17.15              Ocean-based carbon credits               322

4.17.16              Cost analysis 323

4.17.17              Challenges and Risks               323

4.17.18              SWOT analysis              324

5             CARBON DIOXIDE UTILIZATION        325

5.1        Overview           325

5.1.1    Current market status              326

5.2        Carbon utilization business models               331

5.2.1    Benefits of carbon utilization              332

5.2.2    Market challenges      334

5.3        Co2 utilization pathways        335

5.4        Conversion processes             337

5.4.1    Thermochemical         337

5.4.1.1 Process overview        337

5.4.1.2 Plasma-assisted CO2 conversion    339

5.4.2    Electrochemical conversion of CO2               340

5.4.2.1 Process overview        341

5.4.3    Photocatalytic and photothermal catalytic conversion of CO2    343

5.4.4    Catalytic conversion of CO2                343

5.4.5    Biological conversion of CO2              343

5.4.6    Copolymerization of CO2      346

5.4.7    Mineral carbonation  348

5.5        CO2-Utilization in Fuels          351

5.5.1    Overview           351

5.5.2    Production routes       354

5.5.3    CO₂ -fuels in road vehicles    358

5.5.4    CO₂ -fuels in shipping              358

5.5.5    CO₂ -fuels in aviation                358

5.5.6    Costs of e-fuel               359

5.5.7    Power-to-methane     360

5.5.7.1 Thermocatalytic pathway to e-methane      360

5.5.7.2 Biological fermentation           361

5.5.7.3 Costs  361

5.5.8    Algae based biofuels 365

5.5.9    DAC for e-fuels              366

5.5.10 Syngas Production Options 366

5.5.11 CO₂-fuels from solar 367

5.5.12 Companies     369

5.5.13 Challenges      371

5.5.14 Global market forecasts 2025-2045              372

5.6        CO2-Utilization in Chemicals             372

5.6.1    Overview           372

5.6.2    Carbon nanostructures          373

5.6.3    Scalability        375

5.6.4    Pathways          376

5.6.4.1 Thermochemical         376

5.6.4.2 Electrochemical           378

5.6.4.2.1           Low-Temperature Electrochemical CO₂ Reduction              378

5.6.4.2.2           High-Temperature Solid Oxide Electrolyzers              379

5.6.4.2.3           Coupling H2 and Electrochemical CO₂ Reduction                380

5.6.4.3 Microbial conversion 381

5.6.4.4 Other   382

5.6.4.4.1           Photocatalytic               382

5.6.4.4.2           Plasma technology    382

5.6.5    Applications   383

5.6.5.1 Urea production           383

5.6.5.2 CO₂-derived polymers             383

5.6.5.2.1           Pathways          383

5.6.5.2.2           Polycarbonate from CO₂         384

5.6.5.2.3           Methanol to olefins (polypropylene production)     385

5.6.5.2.4           Ethanol to polymers  385

5.6.5.3 Inert gas in semiconductor manufacturing 385

5.6.6    Companies     386

5.6.7    Global market forecasts 2025-2045              388

5.7        CO2-Utilization in Construction and Building Materials    388

5.7.1    Overview           389

5.7.2    Market drivers                389

5.7.3    Key CO₂ utilization technologies in construction   392

5.7.4    Carbonated aggregates          394

5.7.5    Additives during mixing           395

5.7.6    Concrete curing           397

5.7.7    Costs  397

5.7.8    Market trends and business models              397

5.7.9    Carbon credits              400

5.7.10 Companies     401

5.7.11 Challenges      402

5.7.12 Global market forecasts         403

5.8        CO2-Utilization in Biological Yield-Boosting             404

5.8.1    Overview           404

5.8.2    CO₂ utilization in biological processes         404

5.8.3    Applications   404

5.8.3.1 Greenhouses 404

5.8.3.1.1           CO₂ enrichment           404

5.8.3.2 Algae cultivation          405

5.8.3.2.1           CO₂-enhanced algae cultivation: open systems    406

5.8.3.2.2           CO₂-enhanced algae cultivation: closed systems 406

5.8.3.3 Microbial conversion 407

5.8.3.4 Food and feed production     408

5.8.4    Companies     409

5.8.5    Global market forecasts 2025-2045              410

5.9        CO₂ Utilization in Enhanced Oil Recovery   411

5.9.1    Overview           411

5.9.1.1 Process              411

5.9.1.2 CO₂ sources   412

5.9.2    CO₂-EOR facilities and projects         412

5.9.3    Challenges      413

5.9.4    Global market forecasts 2025-2045              414

5.10     Enhanced mineralization       414

5.10.1 Advantages     414

5.10.2 In situ and ex-situ mineralization      415

5.10.3 Enhanced mineralization pathways                416

5.10.4 Challenges      416

5.11     Digital Solutions and IoT in Carbon Utilization         418

5.12     Blockchain Applications in Carbon Trading               419

5.13     Carbon Utilization in Data Centers  421

5.14     Integration with Smart City Infrastructure   422

5.15     Novel Applications     424

5.15.1 3D Printing with CO2-derived Materials       424

5.15.2 CO2 in Energy Storage             426

5.15.3 CO2 in Electronics Manufacturing  427

6             CARBON DIOXIDE STORAGE               428

6.1        Introduction    428

6.2        CO2 storage sites       430

6.2.1    Storage types for geologic CO2 storage       431

6.2.2    Oil and gas fields         432

6.2.3    Saline formations       434

6.2.4    Coal seams and shale             436

6.2.5    Basalts and ultra-mafic rocks             437

6.3        CO₂ leakage    437

6.4        Global CO2 storage capacity              438

6.5        CO₂ Storage Projects 443

6.6        CO₂ -EOR          445

6.6.1    Description     445

6.6.2    Injected CO₂   445

6.6.3    CO₂ capture with CO₂ -EOR facilities             446

6.6.4    Companies     447

6.6.5    Economics      448

6.7        Costs  449

6.8        Challenges      450

6.9        Storage Monitoring Technologies      451

6.10     Underground Hydrogen Storage Synergies 452

6.11     Advanced Modeling and Simulation               453

6.12     Storage Site Selection Criteria            454

6.13     Risk Assessment and Management               455

7             CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORTATION          456

7.1        Introduction    456

7.2        CO₂ transportation methods and conditions           457

7.3        CO₂ transportation by pipeline           458

7.4        CO₂ transportation by ship   459

7.5        CO₂ transportation by rail and truck               459

7.6        Cost analysis of different methods 460

7.7        Smart Pipeline Networks        461

7.8        Transportation Hubs and Infrastructure       462

7.9        Safety Systems and Monitoring         464

7.10     Future Transportation Technologies               465

7.11     Companies     466

 

8             COMPANY PROFILES                468 (313 company profiles)

 

 

9             APPENDICES  670

• 9.1        Abbreviations 670
• 9.2        Research Methodology           671
• 9.3        Definition of Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS)     671
• 9.4        Technology Readiness Level (TRL)   672

 

10          REFERENCES 674

 

List of Tables

• Table 1. Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS) market drivers and trends.   37
• Table 2. Carbon capture, usage, and storage (CCUS) industry developments 2020-2024.        39
• Table 3. CCUS VC deals 2022-2024.              45
• Table 4. CCUS government funding and investment-10 year outlook.      48
• Table 5. Demonstration and commercial CCUS facilities in China.           50
• Table 6. Global commercial CCUS facilities-in operation.               55
• Table 7. Global commercial CCUS facilities-under development/construction.               58
• Table 8. Key market barriers for CCUS.         64
• Table 9. Key compliance carbon pricing initiatives around the world.      65
• Table 10. CCUS business models: full chain, part chain, and hubs and clusters.            68
• Table 11. CCUS capture capacity forecast by CO₂ endpoint, Mtpa of CO₂, to 2045.      74
• Table 12. Capture capacity by region to 2045, Mtpa.          74
• Table 13. CCUS revenue potential for captured CO₂ offtaker, billion US $ to 2045.        75
• Table 14. CCUS capacity forecast by capture type, Mtpa of CO₂, to 2045.           75
• Table 15. Point-source CCUS capture capacity forecast by CO₂ source sector, Mtpa of CO₂, to 2045.                75
• Table 16. CO2 utilization and removal pathways    78
• Table 17. Approaches for capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) from point sources. 82
• Table 18. CO2 capture technologies.             83
• Table 19. Advantages and challenges of carbon capture technologies. 84
• Table 20. Overview of commercial materials and processes utilized in carbon capture.             84
• Table 21. Methods of CO2 transport.             90
• Table 22. Carbon capture, transport, and storage cost per unit of CO2  92
• Table 23. Estimated capital costs for commercial-scale carbon capture.             92
• Table 24. Comparison of CO₂ capture technologies.           96
• Table 25. Typical conditions and performance for different capture technologies.         97
• Table 26. PSCC technologies.             100
• Table 27. Point source examples.     101
• Table 28. Comparison of point-source CO₂ capture systems        102
• Table 29. Blue hydrogen projects.    112
• Table 30. Commercial CO₂ capture systems for blue H2. 113
• Table 31. Market players in blue hydrogen. 113
• Table 32. CCUS Projects in the Cement Sector.      115
• Table 33. Carbon capture technologies in the cement sector.      116
• Table 34. Cost and technological status of carbon capture in the cement sector.           117
• Table 35. Assessment of carbon capture materials              119
• Table 36. Chemical solvents used in post-combustion.   121
• Table 37. Comparison of key chemical solvent-based systems. 122
• Table 38. Chemical absorption solvents used in current operational CCUS point-source projects.    123
• Table 39.Comparison of key physical absorption solvents.             124
• Table 40.Physical solvents used in current operational CCUS point-source projects.  124
• Table 41.Emerging solvents for carbon capture      125
• Table 42. Oxygen separation technologies for oxy-fuel combustion.        126
• Table 43. Large-scale oxyfuel CCUS cement projects.       127
• Table 44. Commercially available physical solvents for pre-combustion carbon capture.        131
• Table 45. Main capture processes and their separation technologies.    131
• Table 46. Absorption methods for CO2 capture overview.               132
• Table 47. Commercially available physical solvents used in CO2 absorption.  134
• Table 48. Adsorption methods for CO2 capture overview.               136
• Table 49. Solid sorbents explored for carbon capture.       138
• Table 50. Carbon-based adsorbents for CO₂ capture.        140
• Table 51. Polymer-based adsorbents.           141
• Table 52. Solid sorbents for post-combustion CO₂ capture.          143
• Table 53. Emerging Solid Sorbent Systems.               143
• Table 54. Membrane-based methods for CO2 capture overview.               145
• Table 55. Comparison of membrane materials for CCUS 147
• Table 56.Commercial status of membranes in carbon capture    148
• Table 57. Membranes for pre-combustion capture.             150
• Table 58. Status of cryogenic CO₂ capture technologies. 152
• Table 59. Benefits and drawbacks of microalgae carbon capture.             157
• Table 60. Comparison of main separation technologies.  158
• Table 61. Technology readiness level (TRL) of gas separation technologies          159
• Table 62. Opportunities and Barriers by sector.      160
• Table 63. DAC technologies.                165
• Table 64. Advantages and disadvantages of DAC. 168
• Table 65. Advantages of DAC as a CO2 removal strategy. 168
• Table 66. Companies developing airflow equipment integration with DAC.         175
• Table 67. Companies developing Passive Direct Air Capture (PDAC) technologies.       175
• Table 68. Companies developing regeneration methods for DAC technologies.               176
• Table 69. DAC companies and technologies.           178
• Table 70. DAC technology developers and production.     180
• Table 71. DAC projects in development.      184
• Table 72. DACCS carbon removal capacity forecast (million metric tons of CO₂ per year), 2024-2045, base case.       185
• Table 73. DACCS carbon removal capacity forecast (million metric tons of CO₂ per year), 2030-2045, optimistic case.           186
• Table 74. Costs summary for DAC.  186
• Table 75. Typical cost contributions of the main components of a DACCS system.       188
• Table 76. Cost estimates of DAC.     191
• Table 77. Challenges for DAC technology.  192
• Table 78. DAC companies and technologies.           195
• Table 79. Example CO2 utilization pathways.           196
• Table 80. Markets for Direct Air Capture and Storage (DACCS).   197
• Table 81. Market overview for CO2 derived fuels.  198
• Table 82. Microalgae products and prices. 202
• Table 83. Main Solar-Driven CO2 Conversion Approaches.            203
• Table 84. Companies in CO2-derived fuel products.           204
• Table 85. Commodity chemicals and fuels manufactured from CO2.     207
• Table 86. CO2 utilization products developed by chemical and plastic producers.        209
• Table 87. Companies in CO2-derived chemicals products.            210
• Table 88. Carbon capture technologies and projects in the cement sector          213
• Table 89. Companies in CO2 derived building materials. 217
• Table 90. Market challenges for CO2 utilization in construction materials.          219
• Table 91. Companies in CO2 Utilization in Biological Yield-Boosting.      222
• Table 92. CO2 sequestering technologies and their use in food. 223
• Table 93. Applications of CCS in oil and gas production.  223
• Table 94.Market Drivers for Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR).         227
• Table 95. CDR versus CCUS 228
• Table 96. Status and Potential of CDR Technologies.          229
• Table 97. Main CDR methods.            230
• Table 98. Novel CDR Methods            231
• Table 99.Carbon Dioxide Removal Technology Benchmarking     232
• Table 100. Comparison of voluntary and compliance carbon credits.     237
• Table 101. DACCS carbon credit revenue forecast (million US$), 2024-2045.   237
• Table 102. Examples of government support and regulations.      239
• Table 103. Carbon credit prices.       241
• Table 104. Carbon credit prices by company and technology.      241
• Table 105. Carbon credit market sizes.        242
• Table 106. Carbon Credit Exchanges and Trading Platforms.         242
• Table 107. Challenges and Risks.    244
• Table 108. CDR Value Chain.              245
• Table 109. Feedstocks for Bioenergy with Carbon Removal and Storage (BiCRS):           251
• Table 110. CO₂ capture technologies for BECCS.  257
• Table 111. Existing and planned capacity for sequestration of biogenic carbon.              259
• Table 112. Existing facilities with capture and/or geologic sequestration of biogenic CO2.       259
• Table 113. Challenges of BECCS      261
• Table 114.Comparison of enhanced weathering materials             265
• Table 115. Enhanced Weathering Applications.     265
• Table 116. Trends and opportunities in enhanced weathering.     266
• Table 117. Challenges and risks in enhanced weathering.               266
• Table 118. Nature-based CDR approaches.              269
• Table 119. Comparison of A/R and BECCS Solutions.        270
• Table 120. Status of Forest Carbon Removal Projects.       271
• Table 121. Companies in robotics in afforestation/reforestation.               272
• Table 122. Comparison of A/R and BECCS.               272
• Table 123. Trends and Opportunities in afforestation/reforestation.         273
• Table 124. Challenges and risks in afforestation/reforestation.   274
• Table 125. Soil carbon sequestration practices.     276
• Table 126. Soil sampling and analysis methods.   277
• Table 127. Remote sensing and modeling techniques.      278
• Table 128. Carbon credit protocols and standards.             278
• Table 129. Trends and opportunities in soil carbon sequestration (SCS).              278
• Table 130. Key aspects of soil carbon credits.         279
• Table 131. Challenges and Risks in SCS.     280
• Table 132. Summary of key properties of biochar. 285
• Table 133. Biochar physicochemical and morphological properties         285
• Table 134. Biochar feedstocks-source, carbon content, and characteristics.    287
• Table 135. Biochar production technologies, description, advantages and disadvantages.    288
• Table 136. Comparison of slow and fast pyrolysis for biomass.  290
• Table 137. Comparison of thermochemical processes for biochar production.                292
• Table 138. Biochar production equipment manufacturers.            292
• Table 139. Competitive materials and technologies that can also earn carbon credits.              295
• Table 140. Bio-oil-based CDR pros and cons.          296
• Table 141. Ocean-based CDR methods.     300
• Table 142. Benchmarking of ocean-based CDR methods:              302
• Table 143.Ocean-based CDR: biotic methods.       303
• Table 144. Technology in direct ocean capture.      309
• Table 145. Future direct ocean capture technologies.       309
• Table 146. Trends and opportunities in ocean-based CDR.            310
• Table 147. Challenges and risks in ocean-based CDR.      312
• Table 148. Carbon utilization revenue forecast by product (US$).              317
• Table 149. Carbon utilization business models.     319
• Table 150. CO2 utilization and removal pathways.                320
• Table 151. Market challenges for CO2 utilization. 322
• Table 152. Example CO2 utilization pathways.        323
• Table 153. CO2 derived products via Thermochemical conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages.            326
• Table 154. CO2 derived products via electrochemical conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages.            329
• Table 155. CO2 derived products via biological conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages.            333
• Table 156. Companies developing and producing CO2-based polymers.             335
• Table 157. Companies developing mineral carbonation technologies.   337
• Table 158. Comparison of emerging CO₂ utilization applications.              338
• Table 159. Main routes to CO₂-fuels.              340
• Table 160. Market overview for CO2 derived fuels.               340
• Table 161. Main routes to CO₂ -fuels              343
• Table 162.Comparison of e-fuels to fossil and biofuels.   344
• Table 163. Existing and future CO₂-derived synfuels (kerosene, diesel, and gasoline) projects.. :         345
• Table 164. CO2-Derived Methane Projects.               348
• Table 165. Power-to-Methane projects worldwide.               349
• Table 166. Power-to-Methane projects.        351
• Table 167. Microalgae products and prices.              354
• Table 168. Syngas Production Options for E-fuels.               355
• Table 169. Main Solar-Driven CO2 Conversion Approaches.         357
• Table 170. Companies in CO2-derived fuel products.        358
• Table 171. CO₂ utilization forecast for fuels by fuel type (million tonnes of CO₂/year), 2025-2045.     360
• Table 172. Global revenue forecast for CO₂-derived fuels by fuel type (million US$), 2025-2045.        360
• Table 173. Commodity chemicals and fuels manufactured from CO2.  364
• Table 174.CO₂-derived Chemicals: Thermochemical Pathways. 364
• Table 175. Thermochemical Methods: CO₂-derived Methanol.    365
• Table 176. CO₂-derived Methanol Projects.               365
• Table 177. CO₂-Derived Methanol: Economic and Market Analysis (Next 5-10 Years).  366
• Table 178. Electrochemical CO₂ Reduction Technologies.              366
• Table 179. Comparison of RWGS and SOEC Co-electrolysis Routes.      367
• Table 180. Cost Comparison of CO₂ Electrochemical Technologies.        368
• Table 181. Technology Readiness Level (TRL): CO₂U Chemicals.               374
• Table 182. Companies in CO2-derived chemicals products.         374
• Table 183. CO₂ utilization forecast in chemicals by end-use (million tonnes of CO₂/year), 2025-2045.                376
• Table 184. Global revenue forecast for CO₂-derived chemicals by end-use (million US$), 2025-2045.                376
• Table 185. Carbon capture technologies and projects in the cement sector       380
• Table 186. Prefabricated versus ready-mixed concrete markets .               383
• Table 187. CO₂ utilization in concrete curing or mixing.    384
• Table 188. CO₂ utilization business models in building materials.             386
• Table 189. Companies in CO2 derived building materials.              389
• Table 190. Market challenges for CO2 utilization in construction materials.       390
• Table 191. CO₂ utilization forecast in building materials by end-use (million tonnes of CO₂/year), 2025-2045.  391
• Table 192. Global revenue forecast for CO₂-derived building materials by product (million US$), 2025-2045.  391
• Table 193. Enrichment Technology. 393
• Table 194. Food and Feed Production from CO₂.   397
• Table 195. Companies in CO2 Utilization in Biological Yield-Boosting.   397
• Table 196. CO₂ utilization forecast in biological yield-boosting by end-use (million tonnes of CO₂ per year), 2025-2045.       398
• Table 197. Global revenue forecast for CO₂ use in biological yield-boosting by end-use (million US$), 2025-2045.     398
• Table 198. Applications of CCS in oil and gas production.               399
• Table 199. CO₂ utilization forecast in enhanced oil recovery (million tonnes of CO₂/year), 2025-2045                402
• Table 200. Global revenue forecast for CO₂-enhanced oil recovery (billion US$), 2025-2045. 402
• Table 201. CO2 EOR/Storage Challenges.  405
• Table 202. Storage and utilization of CO2.  406
• Table 203. Mechanisms of subsurface CO₂ trapping.         408
• Table 204. Global depleted reservoir storage projects.      409
• Table 205. Global CO2 ECBM storage projects.      409
• Table 206. CO2 EOR/storage projects.          410
• Table 207. Global storage sites-saline aquifer projects.    412
• Table 208. Global storage capacity estimates, by region. 417
• Table 209. MRV Technologies and Costs in CO₂ Storage. 419
• Table 210.  Carbon storage challenges.       420
• Table 211. Status of CO₂ Storage Projects. 421
• Table 212. Types of CO₂ -EOR designs.         424
• Table 213. CO₂ capture with CO₂ -EOR facilities.   424
• Table 214. CO₂ -EOR companies.    425
• Table 215. Phases of CO₂ for transportation.            429
• Table 216. CO₂ transportation methods and conditions. 429
• Table 217. Status of CO₂ transportation methods in CCS projects.           430
• Table 218. CO₂ pipelines Technical challenges.     430
• Table 219. Cost comparison of CO₂ transportation methods        432
• Table 220. CO₂ transport operators.               433
• Table 221. List of abbreviations.        640
• Table 222. Technology Readiness Level (TRL) Examples. 642

 

List of Figures

• Figure 1. Carbon emissions by sector.          33
• Figure 2. Overview of CCUS market 34
• Figure 3. CCUS business model.      36
• Figure 4. Pathways for CO2 use.        36
• Figure 5. Regional capacity share 2025-2035.         39
• Figure 6. Global investment in carbon capture 2010-2023, millions USD.            45
• Figure 7. Carbon Capture, Utilization, & Storage (CCUS) Market Map.    54
• Figure 8. CCS deployment projects, historical and to 2035.          55
• Figure 9. Existing and planned CCS projects.           63
• Figure 10. CCUS Value Chain.            63
• Figure 11. Schematic of CCUS process.      77
• Figure 12. Pathways for CO2 utilization and removal.         78
• Figure 13. A pre-combustion capture system.         83
• Figure 14. Carbon dioxide utilization and removal cycle.  86
• Figure 15. Various pathways for CO2 utilization.    87
• Figure 16. Example of underground carbon dioxide storage.         88
• Figure 17. Transport of CCS technologies. 89
• Figure 18. Railroad car for liquid CO₂ transport       91
• Figure 19. Estimated costs of capture of one metric ton of carbon dioxide (Co2) by sector.     93
• Figure 20. Cost of CO2 transported at different flowrates 94
• Figure 21. Cost estimates for long-distance CO2 transport.          95
• Figure 22. CO2 capture and separation technology.            96
• Figure 23. Global capacity of point-source carbon capture and storage facilities.          105
• Figure 24. Global carbon capture capacity by CO2 source, 2023.             106
• Figure 25. Global carbon capture capacity by CO2 source, 2045.             107
• Figure 26. SMR process flow diagram of steam methane reforming with carbon capture and storage (SMR-CCS).    108
• Figure 27. Process flow diagram of autothermal reforming with a carbon capture and storage (ATR-CCS) plant.  109
• Figure 28. POX process flow diagram.          110
• Figure 29. Process flow diagram for a typical SE-SMR.       111
• Figure 30. Post-combustion carbon capture process.        120
• Figure 31. Post-combustion CO2 Capture in a Coal-Fired Power Plant. 121
• Figure 32. Oxy-combustion carbon capture process.         127
• Figure 33. Process schematic of chemical looping.             129
• Figure 34. Liquid or supercritical CO2 carbon capture process.  130
• Figure 35. Pre-combustion carbon capture process.          130
• Figure 36. Amine-based absorption technology.    134
• Figure 37. Pressure swing absorption technology. 138
• Figure 38. Membrane separation technology.           146
• Figure 39. Liquid or supercritical CO2 (cryogenic) distillation.      151
• Figure 40. Cryocap™ process.             153
• Figure 41. Calix advanced calcination reactor.        154
• Figure 42. LEILAC process.   155
• Figure 43. Fuel Cell CO2 Capture diagram.               156
• Figure 44. Microalgal carbon capture.           157
• Figure 45. Cost of carbon capture.  162
• Figure 46. CO2 capture capacity to 2030, MtCO2.               163
• Figure 47. Capacity of large-scale CO2 capture projects, current and planned vs. the Net Zero Scenario, 2020-2030.              164
• Figure 48. CO2 captured from air using liquid and solid sorbent DAC plants, storage, and reuse.        167
• Figure 49. Global CO2 capture from biomass and DAC in the Net Zero Scenario.            168
• Figure 50. Potential for DAC removal versus other carbon removal methods.    169
• Figure 51.  DAC technologies.             171
• Figure 52. Schematic of Climeworks DAC system.               172
• Figure 53. Climeworks’ first commercial direct air capture (DAC) plant, based in Hinwil, Switzerland.                173
• Figure 54.  Flow diagram for solid sorbent DAC.     173
• Figure 55. Direct air capture based on high temperature liquid sorbent by Carbon Engineering.           175
• Figure 56. Global capacity of direct air capture facilities. 179
• Figure 57. Global map of DAC and CCS plants.      185
• Figure 58. Schematic of costs of DAC technologies.           189
• Figure 59. DAC cost breakdown and comparison. 190
• Figure 60. Operating costs of generic liquid and solid-based DAC systems.       192
• Figure 61. Co2 utilization pathways and products.               197
• Figure 62. Conversion route for CO2-derived fuels and chemical intermediates.            199
• Figure 63.  Conversion pathways for CO2-derived methane, methanol and diesel.        200
• Figure 64. CO2 feedstock for the production of e-methanol.         201
• Figure 65. Schematic illustration of (a) biophotosynthetic, (b) photothermal, (c) microbial-photoelectrochemical, (d) photosynthetic and photocatalytic (PS/PC), (e) photoelectrochemical (PEC), and (f) photovoltaic plus electrochemical (PV+EC) approaches for CO2 c           203
• Figure 66. Audi synthetic fuels.          204
• Figure 67.  Conversion of CO2 into chemicals and fuels via different pathways.              207
• Figure 68.  Conversion pathways for CO2-derived polymeric materials  208
• Figure 69. Conversion pathway for CO2-derived building materials.        212
• Figure 70. Schematic of CCUS in cement sector.  213
• Figure 71. Carbon8 Systems’ ACT process.               216
• Figure 72. CO2 utilization in the Carbon Cure process.     216
• Figure 73. Algal cultivation in the desert.     220
• Figure 74. Example pathways for products from cyanobacteria. 221
• Figure 75. Typical Flow Diagram for CO2 EOR.        225
• Figure 76. Large CO2-EOR projects in different project stages by industry.          226
• Figure 77. Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) process.             254
• Figure 78. SWOT analysis: enhanced weathering. 268
• Figure 79. SWOT analysis: afforestation/reforestation.     275
• Figure 80. SWOT analysis: SCS.        281
• Figure 81. Schematic of biochar production.           282
• Figure 82. Biochars from different sources, and by pyrolyzation at different temperatures.      283
• Figure 83. Compressed biochar.       286
• Figure 84. Biochar production diagram.      288
• Figure 85. Pyrolysis process and by-products in agriculture.         290
• Figure 86. SWOT analysis: Biochar for CDR.             299
• Figure 87. SWOT analysis: ocean-based CDR.        313
• Figure 88. CO2 non-conversion and conversion technology, advantages and disadvantages.               314
• Figure 89. Applications for CO2.       316
• Figure 90. Cost to capture one metric ton of carbon, by sector.   317
• Figure 91. Life cycle of CO2-derived products and services.          322
• Figure 92. Co2 utilization pathways and products.               325
• Figure 93. Plasma technology configurations and their advantages and disadvantages for CO2 conversion.     328
• Figure 94. Electrochemical CO₂ reduction products.          329
• Figure 95. LanzaTech gas-fermentation process.   332
• Figure 96. Schematic of biological CO2 conversion into e-fuels. 333
• Figure 97. Econic catalyst systems.                335
• Figure 98. Mineral carbonation processes. 337
• Figure 99. Conversion route for CO2-derived fuels and chemical intermediates.            341
• Figure 100.  Conversion pathways for CO2-derived methane, methanol and diesel.     342
• Figure 101. SWOT analysis: e-fuels.                347
• Figure 102. CO2 feedstock for the production of e-methanol.      353
• Figure 103. Schematic illustration of (a) biophotosynthetic, (b) photothermal, (c) microbial-photoelectrochemical, (d) photosynthetic and photocatalytic (PS/PC), (e) photoelectrochemical (PEC), and (f) photovoltaic plus electrochemical (PV+EC) approaches for CO2 c           357
• Figure 104. Audi synthetic fuels.       358
• Figure 105.  Conversion of CO2 into chemicals and fuels via different pathways.            363
• Figure 106.  Conversion pathways for CO2-derived polymeric materials               372
• Figure 107. Conversion pathway for CO2-derived building materials.     377
• Figure 108. Schematic of CCUS in cement sector.                378
• Figure 109. Carbon8 Systems’ ACT process.             382
• Figure 110. CO2 utilization in the Carbon Cure process.  383
• Figure 111. Algal cultivation in the desert.  393
• Figure 112. Example pathways for products from cyanobacteria.              396
• Figure 113. Typical Flow Diagram for CO2 EOR.     400
• Figure 114. Large CO2-EOR projects in different project stages by industry.       401
• Figure 115. Carbon mineralization pathways.          404
• Figure 116. CO2 Storage Overview - Site Options  408
• Figure 117.  CO2 injection into a saline formation while producing brine for beneficial use.    412
• Figure 118. Subsurface storage cost estimation.   427
• Figure 119. Air Products production process.          441
• Figure 120. ALGIECEL PhotoBioReactor.     446
• Figure 121. Schematic of carbon capture solar project.    451
• Figure 122. Aspiring Materials method.        452
• Figure 123. Aymium’s Biocarbon production.          455
• Figure 124. Capchar prototype pyrolysis kiln.          466
• Figure 125. Carbonminer technology.           472
• Figure 126. Carbon Blade system.   476
• Figure 127. CarbonCure Technology.             483
• Figure 128. Direct Air Capture Process.        485
• Figure 129. CRI process.        488
• Figure 130. PCCSD Project in China.             501
• Figure 131. Orca facility.         502
• Figure 132. Process flow scheme of Compact Carbon Capture Plant.    506
• Figure 133. Colyser process.               507
• Figure 134. ECFORM electrolysis reactor schematic.         514
• Figure 135. Dioxycle modular electrolyzer. 515
• Figure 136. Fuel Cell Carbon Capture.          532
• Figure 137. Topsoe's SynCORTM autothermal reforming technology.      540
• Figure 138. Carbon Capture balloon.            543
• Figure 139. Holy Grail DAC system. 545
• Figure 140. INERATEC unit.   550
• Figure 141. Infinitree swing method.              551
• Figure 142. Audi/Krajete unit.              557
• Figure 143. Made of Air's HexChar panels. 566
• Figure 144. Mosaic Materials MOFs.              573
• Figure 145. Neustark modular plant.             577
• Figure 146. OCOchem’s Carbon Flux Electrolyzer.                585
• Figure 147. ZerCaL™ process.              587
• Figure 148. CCS project at Arthit offshore gas field.             597
• Figure 149. RepAir technology.           601
• Figure 150. Aker (SLB Capturi) carbon capture system.    612
• Figure 151. Soletair Power unit.         614
• Figure 152. Sunfire process for Blue Crude production.    620
• Figure 153. CALF-20 has been integrated into a rotating CO2 capture machine (left), which operates inside a CO2 plant module (right).   623
• Figure 154. Takavator.               625
• Figure 155. O12 Reactor.        630
• Figure 156. Sunglasses with lenses made from CO2-derived materials.               630
• Figure 157. CO2 made car part.        630
• Figure 158. Molecular sieving membrane.  632

 

 

 

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