The Global Hydrogen Market (Production, Storage, Transport and Utilization) 2024-2035

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1              RESEARCH METHODOLOGY         21

2              INTRODUCTION 23

• 2.1          Hydrogen classification  23
• 2.2          Global energy demand and consumption              24
• 2.3          The hydrogen economy and production 24
• 2.4          Removing CO₂ emissions from hydrogen production        27
• 2.5          Hydrogen value chain     27
  • 2.5.1      Production          27
  • 2.5.2      Transport and storage    28
  • 2.5.3      Utilization            28
• 2.6          National hydrogen initiatives      30
• 2.7          Market challenges           31

3              HYDROGEN MARKET ANALYSIS  33

• 3.1          Industry developments 2020-2024            33
• 3.2          Market map       48
• 3.3          Global hydrogen production       50
  • 3.3.1      Industrial applications    51
  • 3.3.2      Hydrogen energy             52
    • 3.3.2.1   Stationary use   52
    • 3.3.2.2   Hydrogen for mobility    52
  • 3.3.3      Current Annual H2 Production    53
  • 3.3.4      Hydrogen production processes 54
    • 3.3.4.1   Hydrogen as by-product 55
    • 3.3.4.2   Reforming           56
      • 3.3.4.2.1               SMR wet method             56
      • 3.3.4.2.2               Oxidation of petroleum fractions              56
      • 3.3.4.2.3               Coal gasification                56
    • 3.3.4.3   Reforming or coal gasification with CO2 capture and storage        56
    • 3.3.4.4   Steam reforming of biomethane               57
    • 3.3.4.5   Water electrolysis            58
    • 3.3.4.6   The "Power-to-Gas" concept      59
    • 3.3.4.7   Fuel cell stack    60
    • 3.3.4.8   Electrolysers      61
    • 3.3.4.9   Other    62
      • 3.3.4.9.1               Plasma technologies       62
      • 3.3.4.9.2               Photosynthesis 63
      • 3.3.4.9.3               Bacterial or biological processes 64
      • 3.3.4.9.4               Oxidation (biomimicry)  65
  • 3.3.5      Production costs               65
  • 3.3.6      Global hydrogen demand forecasts         67
  • 3.3.7      Hydrogen Production in the United States            68
    • 3.3.7.1   Gulf Coast           68
    • 3.3.7.2   California             69
    • 3.3.7.3   Midwest              69
    • 3.3.7.4   Northeast           69
    • 3.3.7.5   Northwest          70
  • 3.3.8      DOE Hydorgen Hubs       71
  • 3.3.9      US Hydrogen Electrolyzer Capacities, Planned and Installed           71

4              TYPES OF HYDROGEN     75

• 4.1          Comparative analysis      75
• 4.2          Green hydrogen               75
  • 4.2.1      Overview            75
  • 4.2.2      Role in energy transition               76
  • 4.2.3      SWOT analysis   77
  • 4.2.4      Electrolyzer technologies             78
    • 4.2.4.1   Alkaline water electrolysis (AWE)              80
    • 4.2.4.2   Anion exchange membrane (AEM) water electrolysis       81
    • 4.2.4.3   PEM water electrolysis  82
    • 4.2.4.4   Solid oxide water electrolysis      83
  • 4.2.5      Market players  84
• 4.3          Blue hydrogen (low-carbon hydrogen)   86
  • 4.3.1      Overview            86
  • 4.3.2      Advantages over green hydrogen             86
  • 4.3.3      SWOT analysis   87
  • 4.3.4      Production technologies               88
    • 4.3.4.1   Steam-methane reforming (SMR)             88
    • 4.3.4.2   Autothermal reforming (ATR)     89
    • 4.3.4.3   Partial oxidation (POX)  90
    • 4.3.4.4   Sorption Enhanced Steam Methane Reforming (SE-SMR) 91
    • 4.3.4.5   Methane pyrolysis (Turquoise hydrogen)              92
    • 4.3.4.6   Coal gasification                94
    • 4.3.4.7   Advanced autothermal gasification (AATG)           96
    • 4.3.4.8   Biomass processes          97
    • 4.3.4.9   Microwave technologies               100
    • 4.3.4.10                Dry reforming    100
    • 4.3.4.11                Plasma Reforming           100
    • 4.3.4.12                Solar SMR            101
    • 4.3.4.13                Tri-Reforming of Methane           101
    • 4.3.4.14                Membrane-assisted reforming   101
    • 4.3.4.15                Catalytic partial oxidation (CPOX)             101
    • 4.3.4.16                Chemical looping combustion (CLC)         102
  • 4.3.5      Carbon capture 102
    • 4.3.5.1   Pre-Combustion vs. Post-Combustion carbon capture      102
    • 4.3.5.2   What is CCUS?  103
      • 4.3.5.2.1               Carbon Capture 108
    • 4.3.5.3   Carbon Utilization            113
      • 4.3.5.3.1               CO2 utilization pathways              114
    • 4.3.5.4   Carbon storage 115
    • 4.3.5.5   Transporting CO2             117
      • 4.3.5.5.1               Methods of CO2 transport           117
    • 4.3.5.6   Costs     120
    • 4.3.5.7   Market map       122
    • 4.3.5.8   Point-source carbon capture for blue hydrogen  124
      • 4.3.5.8.1               Transportation  125
      • 4.3.5.8.2               Global point source CO2 capture capacities          126
      • 4.3.5.8.3               By source            127
      • 4.3.5.8.4               By endpoint       128
      • 4.3.5.8.5               Main carbon capture processes 129
    • 4.3.5.9   Carbon utilization             135
    • 4.3.5.9.1               Benefits of carbon utilization       139
    • 4.3.5.9.2               Market challenges           141
    • 4.3.5.9.3               Co2 utilization pathways               142
    • 4.3.5.9.4               Conversion processes    145
  • 4.3.6      Market players  161
• 4.4          Pink hydrogen   162
  • 4.4.1      Overview            162
  • 4.4.2      Production          162
  • 4.4.3      Applications       163
  • 4.4.4      SWOT analysis   163
  • 4.4.5      Market players  165
• 4.5          Turquoise hydrogen       165
  • 4.5.1      Overview            165
  • 4.5.2      Production          165
  • 4.5.3      Applications       166
  • 4.5.4      SWOT analysis   167
  • 4.5.5      Market players  168

5              HYDROGEN STORAGE AND TRANSPORT 169

• 5.1          Market overview             169
• 5.2          Hydrogen transport methods     170
  • 5.2.1      Pipeline transportation  171
  • 5.2.2      Road or rail transport     171
  • 5.2.3      Maritime transportation               171
  • 5.2.4      On-board-vehicle transport         171
• 5.3          Hydrogen compression, liquefaction, storage      172
  • 5.3.1      Solid storage      172
  • 5.3.2      Liquid storage on support             172
  • 5.3.3      Underground storage    173
• 5.4          Market players  173

6              HYDROGEN UTILIZATION              175

• 6.1          Hydrogen Fuel Cells         175
• 6.2          Market overview             175
  • 6.2.1      PEM fuel cells (PEMFCs) 176
  • 6.2.2      Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs)       176
  • 6.2.3      Alternative fuel cells       176
• 6.3          Alternative fuel production          177
  • 6.3.1      Solid Biofuels     178
  • 6.3.2      Liquid Biofuels  178
  • 6.3.3      Gaseous Biofuels             179
  • 6.3.4      Conventional Biofuels    179
  • 6.3.5      Advanced Biofuels           179
  • 6.3.6      Feedstocks         180
  • 6.3.7      Production of biodiesel and other biofuels            182
  • 6.3.8      Renewable diesel            183
  • 6.3.9      Biojet and sustainable aviation fuel (SAF)              184
  • 6.3.10    Electrofuels (E-fuels, power-to-gas/liquids/fuels)               187
    • 6.3.10.1                Hydrogen electrolysis     191
    • 6.3.10.2                eFuel production facilities, current and planned 194
• 6.4          Hydrogen Vehicles          198
  • 6.4.1      Market overview             198
• 6.5          Aviation               199
  • 6.5.1      Market overview             199
• 6.6          Ammonia production     200
  • 6.6.1      Market overview             200
  • 6.6.2      Decarbonisation of ammonia production               201
  • 6.6.3      Green ammonia synthesis methods         203
    • 6.6.3.1   Haber-Bosch process      203
    • 6.6.3.2   Biological nitrogen fixation          204
    • 6.6.3.3   Electrochemical production         204
    • 6.6.3.4   Chemical looping processes        204
  • 6.6.4      Blue ammonia   205
    • 6.6.4.1   Blue ammonia projects  205
  • 6.6.5      Chemical energy storage              205
    • 6.6.5.1   Ammonia fuel cells          205
    • 6.6.5.2   Marine fuel         206
• 6.7          Methanol production     210
• 6.8          Market overview             210
  • 6.8.1      Methanol-to gasoline technology             210
    • 6.8.1.1   Production processes     211
      • 6.8.1.1.1               Anaerobic digestion        212
      • 6.8.1.1.2               Biomass gasification        213
      • 6.8.1.1.3               Power to Methane          213
• 6.9          Steelmaking       214
  • 6.9.1      Market overview             214
  • 6.9.2      Comparative analysis      217
  • 6.9.3      Hydrogen Direct Reduced Iron (DRI)        218
• 6.10        Power & heat generation             220
  • 6.10.1    Market overview             220
    • 6.10.1.1                Power generation            220
    • 6.10.1.2                Heat Generation              220
• 6.11        Maritime             221
  • 6.11.1    Market overview             221
• 6.12        Fuel cell trains   222
  • 6.12.1    Market overview             222

7              COMPANY PROFILES       223 (251 company profiles)

8              REFERENCES       415

List of Tables

• Table 1. Hydrogen colour shades, Technology, cost, and CO2 emissions.  23
• Table 2. Main applications of hydrogen. 24
• Table 3. Overview of hydrogen production methods.       25
• Table 4. National hydrogen initiatives.    30
• Table 5. Market challenges in the hydrogen economy and production technologies.          31
• Table 6. Hydrogen industry developments 2020-2024.     33
• Table 7. Market map for hydrogen technology and production.   48
• Table 8. Industrial applications of hydrogen.        51
• Table 9. Hydrogen energy markets and applications.         52
• Table 10. Hydrogen production processes and stage of development.      54
• Table 11. Estimated costs of clean hydrogen production. 66
• Table 12. US Hydrogen Electrolyzer Capacities, current and planned, as of May 2023, by region.   72
• Table 13. Comparison of hydrogen types               75
• Table 14.  Characteristics of typical water electrolysis technologies            79
• Table 15. Advantages and disadvantages of water electrolysis technologies.          80
• Table 16. Market players in green hydrogen (electrolyzers).         84
• Table 17. Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) of main production technologies for blue hydrogen. 88
• Table 18. Key players in methane pyrolysis.          93
• Table 19. Commercial coal gasifier technologies. 95
• Table 20. Blue hydrogen projects using CG.          95
• Table 21. Biomass processes summary, process description and TRL.         97
• Table 22. Pathways for hydrogen production from biomass.          99
• Table 23. CO2 utilization and removal pathways 105
• Table 24. Approaches for capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) from point sources.       108
• Table 25. CO2 capture technologies.       110
• Table 26. Advantages and challenges of carbon capture technologies.      111
• Table 27. Overview of commercial materials and processes utilized in carbon capture.      111
• Table 28. Methods of CO2 transport.       118
• Table 29. Carbon capture, transport, and storage cost per unit of CO2      120
• Table 30. Estimated capital costs for commercial-scale carbon capture.   121
• Table 31. Point source examples.              124
• Table 32. Assessment of carbon capture materials             129
• Table 33. Chemical solvents used in post-combustion.    132
• Table 34. Commercially available physical solvents for pre-combustion carbon capture.   135
• Table 35. Carbon utilization revenue forecast by product (US$).  139
• Table 36. CO2 utilization and removal pathways.               139
• Table 37. Market challenges for CO2 utilization.  141
• Table 38. Example CO2 utilization pathways.       142
• Table 39. CO2 derived products via Thermochemical conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages.       145
• Table 40. Electrochemical CO₂ reduction products.            149
• Table 41. CO2 derived products via electrochemical conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages.        150
• Table 42. CO2 derived products via biological conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages.     154
• Table 43. Companies developing and producing CO2-based polymers.     157
• Table 44. Companies developing mineral carbonation technologies.          160
• Table 45. Market players in blue hydrogen.          161
• Table 46. Market players in pink hydrogen.          165
• Table 47. Market players in turquoise hydrogen. 168
• Table 48. Market overview-hydrogen storage and transport.        169
• Table 49. Summary of different methods of hydrogen transport. 170
• Table 50. Market players in hydrogen storage and transport.        173
• Table 51. Market overview hydrogen fuel cells-applications, market players and market challenges.           175
• Table 52. Categories and examples of solid biofuel.           178
• Table 53. Comparison of biofuels and e-fuels to fossil and electricity.        179
• Table 54. Classification of biomass feedstock.     180
• Table 55. Biorefinery feedstocks.              181
• Table 56. Feedstock conversion pathways.           182
• Table 57. Biodiesel production techniques.          182
• Table 58. Advantages and disadvantages of biojet fuel    184
• Table 59. Production pathways for bio-jet fuel.   185
• Table 60. Applications of e-fuels, by type.             189
• Table 61. Overview of e-fuels.    190
• Table 62. Benefits of e-fuels.      190
• Table 63. eFuel production facilities, current and planned.            194
• Table 64. Market overview for hydrogen vehicles-applications, market players and market challenges.      198
• Table 65. Blue ammonia projects.             205
• Table 66. Ammonia fuel cell technologies.            206
• Table 67. Market overview of green ammonia in marine fuel.       207
• Table 68. Summary of marine alternative fuels.  207
• Table 69. Estimated costs for different types of ammonia.             208
• Table 70. Comparison of biogas, biomethane and natural gas.      212
• Table 71. Hydrogen-based steelmaking technologies.      217
• Table 72. Comparison of green steel production technologies.     217
• Table 73. Advantages and disadvantages of each potential hydrogen carrier.         219

List of Figures

• Figure 1. Hydrogen value chain. 29
• Figure 2. Current Annual H2 Production. 54
• Figure 3. Principle of a PEM electrolyser.               58
• Figure 4. Power-to-gas concept. 60
• Figure 5. Schematic of a fuel cell stack.   61
• Figure 6. High pressure electrolyser - 1 MW.        62
• Figure 7. Global hydrogen demand forecast.        67
• Figure 8. U.S. Hydrogen Production by Producer Type.    68
• Figure 9. Segmentation of regional hydrogen production capacities in the US.       70
• Figure 10. Current of planned installations of Electrolyzers over 1MW in the US.  72
• Figure 11. SWOT analysis: green hydrogen.          78
• Figure 12. Types of electrolysis technologies.       78
• Figure 13. Schematic of alkaline water electrolysis working principle.        81
• Figure 14. Schematic of PEM water electrolysis working principle.              83
• Figure 15. Schematic of solid oxide water electrolysis working principle.  84
• Figure 16. SWOT analysis: blue hydrogen.             88
• Figure 17. SMR process flow diagram of steam methane reforming with carbon capture and storage (SMR-CCS).  89
• Figure 18. Process flow diagram of autothermal reforming with a carbon capture and storage (ATR-CCS) plant.     90
• Figure 19. POX process flow diagram.      91
• Figure 20. Process flow diagram for a typical SE-SMR.      92
• Figure 21. HiiROC’s methane pyrolysis reactor.   93
• Figure 22. Coal gasification (CG) process.               94
• Figure 23. Flow diagram of Advanced autothermal gasification (AATG).   97
• Figure 24. Schematic of CCUS process.    104
• Figure 25. Pathways for CO2 utilization and removal.       104
• Figure 26. A pre-combustion capture system.      110
• Figure 27. Carbon dioxide utilization and removal cycle.  114
• Figure 28. Various pathways for CO2 utilization. 115
• Figure 29. Example of underground carbon dioxide storage.         116
• Figure 30. Transport of CCS technologies.              117
• Figure 31. Railroad car for liquid CO₂ transport    120
• Figure 32. Estimated costs of capture of one metric ton of carbon dioxide (Co2) by sector.              121
• Figure 33. CCUS market map.      124
• Figure 34. Global capacity of point-source carbon capture and storage facilities.  126
• Figure 35. Global carbon capture capacity by CO2 source, 2021.   127
• Figure 36. Global carbon capture capacity by CO2 source, 2030.   127
• Figure 37. Global carbon capture capacity by CO2 endpoint, 2022 and 2030.          128
• Figure 38. Post-combustion carbon capture process.        131
• Figure 39. Postcombustion CO2 Capture in a Coal-Fired Power Plant.        131
• Figure 40. Oxy-combustion carbon capture process.         133
• Figure 41. Liquid or supercritical CO2 carbon capture process.     134
• Figure 42. Pre-combustion carbon capture process.          135
• Figure 43. CO2 non-conversion and conversion technology, advantages and disadvantages.           136
• Figure 44. Applications for CO2. 138
• Figure 45. Cost to capture one metric ton of carbon, by sector.    139
• Figure 46. Life cycle of CO2-derived products and services.            141
• Figure 47. Co2 utilization pathways and products.             144
• Figure 48. Plasma technology configurations and their advantages and disadvantages for CO2 conversion.              148
• Figure 49. LanzaTech gas-fermentation process. 153
• Figure 50. Schematic of biological CO2 conversion into e-fuels.   154
• Figure 51. Econic catalyst systems.           157
• Figure 52. Mineral carbonation processes.            159
• Figure 53. Pink hydrogen Production Pathway.   162
• Figure 54. SWOT analysis: pink hydrogen               164
• Figure 55. Turquoise hydrogen Production Pathway.        166
• Figure 56. SWOT analysis: turquoise hydrogen    168
• Figure 57. Process steps in the production of electrofuels.             188
• Figure 58. Mapping storage technologies according to performance characteristics.           189
• Figure 59. Production process for green hydrogen.           191
• Figure 60. E-liquids production routes.   192
• Figure 61. Fischer-Tropsch liquid e-fuel products.              193
• Figure 62. Resources required for liquid e-fuel production.            193
• Figure 63. Levelized cost and fuel-switching CO2 prices of e-fuels.             196
• Figure 64. Cost breakdown for e-fuels.   197
• Figure 65. Hydrogen fuel cell powered EV.            198
• Figure 66. Green ammonia production and use. 201
• Figure 67. Classification and process technology according to carbon emission in ammonia production.    202
• Figure 68. Schematic of the Haber Bosch ammonia synthesis reaction.     203
• Figure 69. Schematic of hydrogen production via steam methane reformation.    204
• Figure 70. Estimated production cost of green ammonia.               209
• Figure 71. Renewable Methanol Production Processes from Different Feedstocks.              211
• Figure 72. Production of biomethane through anaerobic digestion and upgrading.              213
• Figure 73. Production of biomethane through biomass gasification and methanation.       213
• Figure 74. Production of biomethane through the Power to methane process.     214
• Figure 75. Transition to hydrogen-based production.       215
• Figure 76. CO2 emissions from steelmaking (tCO2/ton crude steel).          216
• Figure 77. Hydrogen Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) process.  219
• Figure 78. Three Gorges Hydrogen Boat No. 1.     221
• Figure 79. PESA hydrogen-powered shunting locomotive.              222
• Figure 80. Symbiotic™ technology process.           223
• Figure 81. Alchemr AEM electrolyzer cell.              231
• Figure 82. HyCS® technology system.      233
• Figure 83. Fuel cell module FCwave™.    240
• Figure 84. Direct Air Capture Process.     247
• Figure 85. CRI process.   249
• Figure 86. Croft system. 259
• Figure 87. ECFORM electrolysis reactor schematic.            265
• Figure 88. Domsjö process.          266
• Figure 89. EH Fuel Cell Stack.       269
• Figure 90. Direct MCH® process. 273
• Figure 91. Electriq's dehydrogenation system.    276
• Figure 92. Endua Power Bank.    278
• Figure 93. EL 2.1 AEM Electrolyser.           279
• Figure 94. Enapter – Anion Exchange Membrane (AEM) Water Electrolysis.            280
• Figure 95. Hyundai Class 8 truck fuels at a First Element high capacity mobile refueler.     287
• Figure 96. FuelPositive system.  290
• Figure 97. Using electricity from solar power to produce green hydrogen.              296
• Figure 98. Hydrogen Storage Module.     308
• Figure 99. Plug And Play Stationery Storage Units.             308
• Figure 100. Left: a typical single-stage electrolyzer design, with a membrane separating the hydrogen and oxygen gasses. Right: the two-stage E-TAC process.         311
• Figure 101. Hystar PEM electrolyser.       327
• Figure 102. KEYOU-H2-Technology.         337
• Figure 103. Audi/Krajete unit.    338
• Figure 104. OCOchem’s Carbon Flux Electrolyzer.               357
• Figure 105.  CO2 hydrogenation to jet fuel range hydrocarbons process. 361
• Figure 106. The Plagazi ® process.             367
• Figure 107. Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell.            371
• Figure 108. Sunfire process for Blue Crude production.    388
• Figure 109. CALF-20 has been integrated into a rotating CO2 capture machine (left), which operates inside a CO2 plant module (right).  391
• Figure 110. Tevva hydrogen truck.            397
• Figure 111. Topsoe's SynCORTM autothermal reforming technology.        400
• Figure 112. O12 Reactor.              405
• Figure 113. Sunglasses with lenses made from CO2-derived materials.     406
• Figure 114. CO2 made car part.  406
• Figure 115. The Velocys process.               408

The Global Hydrogen Market (Production, Storage, Transport and Utilization) 2024-2035

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The Global Hydrogen Market (Production, Storage, Transport and Utilization) 2024-2035

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