The Global Market for Bio-based and Sustainable Materials 2023-2033

1              RESEARCH METHODOLOGY         59

2              BIO-BASED AND SUSTAINABLE CHEMICALS AND FEEDSTOCKS      62

• 2.1          Types    62
• 2.2          Production capacities     63
• 2.3          Bio-based adipic acid      64
  • 2.3.1      Applications and production       64
• 2.4          11-Aminoundecanoic acid (11-AA)            65
  • 2.4.1      Applications and production       65
• 2.5          1,4-Butanediol (1,4-BDO)              66
  • 2.5.1      Applications and production       66
• 2.6          Dodecanedioic acid (DDDA)         67
  • 2.6.1      Applications and production       67
• 2.7          Epichlorohydrin (ECH)    68
  • 2.7.1      Applications and production       68
• 2.8          Ethylene              69
  • 2.8.1      Applications and production       69
• 2.9          Furfural 70
  • 2.9.1      Applications and production       70
• 2.10        5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) 71
  • 2.10.1    Applications and production       71
• 2.11        5-Chloromethylfurfural (5-CMF) 71
  • 2.11.1    Applications and production       71
• 2.12        2,5-Furandicarboxylic acid (2,5-FDCA)     72
  • 2.12.1    Applications and production       72
• 2.13        Furandicarboxylic methyl ester (FDME)  72
• 2.14        Isosorbide           73
  • 2.14.1    Applications and production       73
• 2.15        Itaconic acid       73
  • 2.15.1    Applications and production       73
• 2.16        3-Hydroxypropionic acid (3-HP) 74
  • 2.16.1    Applications and production       74
• 2.17        5 Hydroxymethyl furfural (HMF) 75
  • 2.17.1    Applications and production       75
• 2.18        Lactic acid (D-LA)             75
  • 2.18.1    Applications and production       76
• 2.19        Lactic acid – L-lactic acid (L-LA)   76
  • 2.19.1    Applications and production       76
• 2.20        Lactide  77
  • 2.20.1    Applications and production       77
• 2.21        Levoglucosenone             78
  • 2.21.1    Applications and production       78
• 2.22        Levulinic acid      79
  • 2.22.1    Applications and production       79
• 2.23        Monoethylene glycol (MEG)       79
  • 2.23.1    Applications and production       80
• 2.24        Monopropylene glycol (MPG)    80
  • 2.24.1    Applications and production       81
• 2.25        Muconic acid      81
  • 2.25.1    Applications and production       82
• 2.26        Bio-Naphtha      82
  • 2.26.1    Applications and production       83
  • 2.26.2    Production capacities     84
  • 2.26.3    Bio-naptha producers    84
• 2.27        Pentamethylene diisocyanate    85
  • 2.27.1    Applications and production       85
• 2.28        1,3-Propanediol (1,3-PDO)           86
  • 2.28.1    Applications and production       86
• 2.29        Sebacic acid        87
  • 2.29.1    Applications and production       87
• 2.30        Succinic acid (SA)             88
  • 2.30.1    Applications and production       88

3              BIO-BASED AND SUSTAINABLE MATERIALS, PLASTICS AND POLYMERS      89

• 3.1          Global production of plastics       89
• 3.2          The importance of plastic              89
• 3.3          Issues with plastics use  90
• 3.4          Policy and regulations    90
• 3.5          The circular economy     91
• 3.6          Bio-based or renewable plastics 93
  • 3.6.1      Drop-in bio-based plastics            93
  • 3.6.2      Novel bio-based plastics                94
• 3.7          Biodegradable and compostable plastics                95
  • 3.7.1      Biodegradability               95
  • 3.7.2      Compostability  96
• 3.8          Advantages and disadvantages  97
• 3.9          Biocomposites  98
  • 3.9.1      Natural Fibers    98
    • 3.9.1.1   Plant      98
    • 3.9.1.2   Animal  99
    • 3.9.1.3   Mineral 100
  • 3.9.2      Matrices              100
    • 3.9.2.1   Thermoplastic polymers               100
    • 3.9.2.2   Thermosetting polymers              101
• 3.10        Types of Bio-based and/or Biodegradable Plastics              103
• 3.11        Market leaders by biobased and/or biodegradable plastic types  104
• 3.12        Regional/country production capacities, by main types   105
  • 3.12.1    Bio-based Polyethylene (Bio-PE) production capacities, by country             107
  • 3.12.2    Bio-based Polyethylene terephthalate (Bio-PET) production capacities, by country              108
  • 3.12.3    Bio-based polyamides (Bio-PA) production capacities, by country               109
  • 3.12.4    Bio-based Polypropylene (Bio-PP) production capacities, by country          110
  • 3.12.5    Bio-based Polytrimethylene terephthalate (Bio-PTT) production capacities, by country     111
  • 3.12.6    Bio-based Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) production capacities, by country         112
  • 3.12.7    Bio-based Polybutylene succinate (PBS) production capacities, by country              113
  • 3.12.8    Bio-based Polylactic acid (PLA) production capacities, by country 114
  • 3.12.9    Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) production capacities, by country  115
  • 3.12.10  Starch blends production capacities, by country 116
• 3.13        SYNTHETIC BIO-BASED POLYMERS            117
  • 3.13.1    Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA) 117
    • 3.13.1.1                Market analysis 117
    • 3.13.1.2                Production          119
    • 3.13.1.3                Producers and production capacities, current and planned            119
      • 3.13.1.3.1             Lactic acid producers and production capacities  119
      • 3.13.1.3.2             PLA producers and production capacities               120
      • 3.13.1.3.3             Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons)     121
  • 3.13.2    Polyethylene terephthalate (Bio-PET)     122
    • 3.13.2.1                Market analysis 122
    • 3.13.2.2                Producers and production capacities       123
    • 3.13.2.3                Polyethylene terephthalate (Bio-PET) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons)          124
  • 3.13.3    Polytrimethylene terephthalate (Bio-PTT)             125
    • 3.13.3.1                Market analysis 125
    • 3.13.3.2                Producers and production capacities       125
    • 3.13.3.3                Polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons)          126
  • 3.13.4    Polyethylene furanoate (Bio-PEF)             127
    • 3.13.4.1                Market analysis 127
    • 3.13.4.2                Comparative properties to PET   128
    • 3.13.4.3                Producers and production capacities       129
      • 3.13.4.3.1             FDCA and PEF producers and production capacities           129
      • 3.13.4.3.2             Polyethylene furanoate (Bio-PEF) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons). 130
  • 3.13.5    Polyamides (Bio-PA)       131
    • 3.13.5.1                Market analysis 131
    • 3.13.5.2                Producers and production capacities       132
    • 3.13.5.3                Polyamides (Bio-PA) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons)            133
  • 3.13.6    Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (Bio-PBAT)        134
    • 3.13.6.1                Market analysis 134
    • 3.13.6.2                Producers and production capacities       134
    • 3.13.6.3                Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (Bio-PBAT) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons)                135
  • 3.13.7    Polybutylene succinate (PBS) and copolymers     136
    • 3.13.7.1                Market analysis 136
    • 3.13.7.2                Producers and production capacities       137
    • 3.13.7.3                Polybutylene succinate (PBS) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons)           137
  • 3.13.8    Polyethylene (Bio-PE)    138
    • 3.13.8.1                Market analysis 138
    • 3.13.8.2                Producers and production capacities       139
    • 3.13.8.3                Polyethylene (Bio-PE) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons).        139
  • 3.13.9    Polypropylene (Bio-PP) 140
    • 3.13.9.1                Market analysis 140
    • 3.13.9.2                Producers and production capacities       140
    • 3.13.9.3                Polypropylene (Bio-PP) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons)      141
  • 3.13.10  Starch   141
    • 3.13.10.1              Market analysis 141
    • 3.13.10.2              Producers and production capacities       142
• 3.14        NATURAL BIO-BASED POLYMERS               144
  • 3.14.1    Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)     144
    • 3.14.1.1                Technology description 144
    • 3.14.1.2                Types    146
      • 3.14.1.2.1             PHB        148
      • 3.14.1.2.2             PHBV     149
    • 3.14.1.3                Synthesis and production processes        150
    • 3.14.1.4                Market analysis 153
    • 3.14.1.5                Commercially available PHAs      154
    • 3.14.1.6                Markets for PHAs             155
      • 3.14.1.6.1             Packaging            157
      • 3.14.1.6.2             Cosmetics           158
        • 3.14.1.6.2.1         PHA microspheres           158
      • 3.14.1.6.3             Medical 159
        • 3.14.1.6.3.1         Tissue engineering          159
        • 3.14.1.6.3.2         Drug delivery     159
      • 3.14.1.6.4             Agriculture          159
        • 3.14.1.6.4.1         Mulch film           159
        • 3.14.1.6.4.2         Grow bags           159
    • 3.14.1.7                Producers and production capacities       160
    • 3.14.1.8                PHA production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons)            162
  • 3.14.2    Cellulose              163
    • 3.14.2.1                Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) 163
      • 3.14.2.1.1             Market analysis 163
      • 3.14.2.1.2             Producers and production capacities       164
    • 3.14.2.2                Nanocellulose   164
      • 3.14.2.2.1             Cellulose nanocrystals    164
        • 3.14.2.2.1.1         Synthesis             165
        • 3.14.2.2.1.2         Properties           167
        • 3.14.2.2.1.3         Production          168
        • 3.14.2.2.1.4         Applications       168
        • 3.14.2.2.1.5         Market analysis 170
        • 3.14.2.2.1.6         Producers and production capacities       171
      • 3.14.2.2.2             Cellulose nanofibers       172
        • 3.14.2.2.2.1         Applications       172
        • 3.14.2.2.2.2         Market analysis 173
        • 3.14.2.2.2.3         Producers and production capacities       175
      • 3.14.2.2.3             Bacterial Nanocellulose, Biocellulose (BNC)          176
        • 3.14.2.2.3.1         Production          176
        • 3.14.2.2.3.2         Applications       179
  • 3.14.3    Protein-based bioplastics             180
    • 3.14.3.1                Types, applications and producers            181
  • 3.14.4    Algal and fungal 182
    • 3.14.4.1                Algal      182
      • 3.14.4.1.1             Advantages        182
      • 3.14.4.1.2             Production          184
      • 3.14.4.1.3             Producers           184
    • 3.14.4.2                Mycelium            185
      • 3.14.4.2.1             Properties           185
      • 3.14.4.2.2             Applications       186
      • 3.14.4.2.3             Commercialization           187
  • 3.14.5    Chitosan              188
  • 3.14.5.1                Technology description 188
• 3.15        PRODUCTION OF BIOBASED AND BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS, BY REGION 189
  • 3.15.1    North America   190
  • 3.15.2    Europe 191
  • 3.15.3    Asia-Pacific         191
    • 3.15.3.1                China     191
    • 3.15.3.2                Japan    192
    • 3.15.3.3                Thailand               192
    • 3.15.3.4                Indonesia            192
  • 3.15.4    Latin America    193
• 3.16        GLOBAL MARKET DEMAND FOR BIOBASED AND SUSTAINABLE PLASTICS, 2019-2033           194
  • 3.16.1    Packaging            195
    • 3.16.1.1                Processes for bioplastics in packaging      196
    • 3.16.1.2                Applications       197
    • 3.16.1.3                Flexible packaging            198
      • 3.16.1.3.1             Global demand 2019-2033            200
    • 3.16.1.4                Rigid packaging 200
      • 3.16.1.4.1             Global demand 2019-2033            203
  • 3.16.2    Consumer products        204
    • 3.16.2.1                Applications       204
    • 3.16.2.2                Global market demand 2019-2033             204
  • 3.16.3    Automotive        205
    • 3.16.3.1                Applications       205
    • 3.16.3.2                Global market demand 2019-2033             210
  • 3.16.4    Building & construction 211
    • 3.16.4.1                Applications       211
    • 3.16.4.2                Global market demand 2019-2033             212
  • 3.16.5    Textiles 213
    • 3.16.5.1                Apparel 213
    • 3.16.5.2                Footwear            214
    • 3.16.5.3                Medical textiles 216
    • 3.16.5.4                Biobased leather              216
    • 3.16.5.5                Global market demand, 209-2033              218
  • 3.16.6    Sports and leisure equipment    219
    • 3.16.6.1                Market overview             219
    • 3.16.6.2                Global market demand 2019-2033             220
  • 3.16.7    Electronics          221
    • 3.16.7.1                Applications       221
    • 3.16.7.2                Global market demand 2019-2033             221
  • 3.16.8    Agriculture and horticulture        222
    • 3.16.8.1                Global market demand 2019-2033             223
• 3.17        NATURAL FIBERS              224
  • 3.17.1    Manufacturing method, matrix materials and applications of natural fibers            227
  • 3.17.2    Advantages of natural fibers       229
  • 3.17.3    Commercially available natural fiber  products    230
  • 3.17.4    Market drivers for next-gen natural fibers             233
  • 3.17.5    Challenges          234
  • 3.17.6    Plants (cellulose, lignocellulose) 235
    • 3.17.6.1                Seed fibers         235
      • 3.17.6.1.1             Cotton  235
        • 3.17.6.1.1.1         Production volumes 2018-2033   236
      • 3.17.6.1.2             Kapok   236
        • 3.17.6.1.2.1         Production volumes 2018-2033   237
      • 3.17.6.1.3             Luffa      238
    • 3.17.6.2                Bast fibers           239
      • 3.17.6.2.1             Jute       239
        • 3.17.6.2.2             Production volumes 2018-2033   240
      • 3.17.6.2.2.1         Hemp    241
        • 3.17.6.2.2.2         Production volumes 2018-2033   242
      • 3.17.6.2.3             Flax        242
        • 3.17.6.2.3.1         Production volumes 2018-2033   243
      • 3.17.6.2.4             Ramie   244
        • 3.17.6.2.4.1         Production volumes 2018-2033   244
      • 3.17.6.2.5             Kenaf    245
        • 3.17.6.2.5.1         Production volumes 2018-2033   246
    • 3.17.6.3                Leaf fibers           247
      • 3.17.6.3.1             Sisal       247
        • 3.17.6.3.1.1         Production volumes 2018-2033   248
      • 3.17.6.3.2             Abaca    248
        • 3.17.6.3.2.1         Production volumes 2018-2033   249
    • 3.17.6.4                Fruit fibers          250
      • 3.17.6.4.1             Coir        250
        • 3.17.6.4.1.1         Production volumes 2018-2033   250
      • 3.17.6.4.2             Banana 251
        • 3.17.6.4.2.1         Production volumes 2018-2033   252
      • 3.17.6.4.3             Pineapple            253
    • 3.17.6.5                Stalk fibers from agricultural residues     254
      • 3.17.6.5.1             Rice fiber             254
      • 3.17.6.5.2             Corn      255
    • 3.17.6.6                Cane, grasses and reed  256
      • 3.17.6.6.1             Switch grass       256
      • 3.17.6.6.2             Sugarcane (agricultural residues)              256
      • 3.17.6.6.3             Bamboo               257
        • 3.17.6.6.3.1         Production volumes 2018-2033   258
      • 3.17.6.6.4             Fresh grass (green biorefinery)  258
    • 3.17.6.7                Modified natural polymers          259
      • 3.17.6.7.1             Mycelium            259
      • 3.17.6.7.2             Chitosan              261
      • 3.17.6.7.3             Alginate               262
  • 3.17.7    Animal (fibrous protein) 264
    • 3.17.7.1                Wool     264
      • 3.17.7.1.1             Alternative wool materials           265
      • 3.17.7.1.2             Producers           265
    • 3.17.7.2                Silk fiber              265
      • 3.17.7.2.1             Alternative silk materials               266
        • 3.17.7.2.1.1         Producers           267
    • 3.17.7.3                Leather 267
      • 3.17.7.3.1             Alternative leather materials       268
        • 3.17.7.3.1.1         Producers           268
    • 3.17.7.4                Fur         270
      • 3.17.7.4.1             Producers           270
    • 3.17.7.5                Down    270
      • 3.17.7.5.1             Alternative down materials          270
        • 3.17.7.5.1.1         Producers           270
  • 3.17.8    Markets for natural fibers            271
    • 3.17.8.1                Composites        271
    • 3.17.8.2                Applications       271
    • 3.17.8.3                Natural fiber injection moulding compounds       272
      • 3.17.8.3.1             Properties           273
      • 3.17.8.3.2             Applications       273
    • 3.17.8.4                Non-woven natural fiber mat composites              273
      • 3.17.8.4.1             Automotive        273
      • 3.17.8.4.2             Applications       274
    • 3.17.8.5                Aligned natural fiber-reinforced composites        274
    • 3.17.8.6                Natural fiber biobased polymer compounds         275
    • 3.17.8.7                Natural fiber biobased polymer non-woven mats              276
      • 3.17.8.7.1             Flax        276
      • 3.17.8.7.2             Kenaf    276
    • 3.17.8.8                Natural fiber thermoset bioresin composites       276
    • 3.17.8.9                Aerospace          277
      • 3.17.8.9.1             Market overview             277
    • 3.17.8.10              Automotive        277
      • 3.17.8.10.1          Market overview             277
      • 3.17.8.10.2          Applications of natural fibers      282
    • 3.17.8.11              Building/construction     283
      • 3.17.8.11.1          Market overview             283
      • 3.17.8.11.2          Applications of natural fibers      283
    • 3.17.8.12              Sports and leisure            284
      • 3.17.8.12.1          Market overview             284
    • 3.17.8.13              Textiles 285
      • 3.17.8.13.1          Market overview             285
      • 3.17.8.13.2          Consumer apparel           286
      • 3.17.8.13.3          Geotextiles        286
    • 3.17.8.14              Packaging            287
      • 3.17.8.14.1          Market overview             288
  • 3.17.9    Natural fibers global production 290
    • 3.17.9.1                Overall global fibers market        290
    • 3.17.9.2                Plant-based fiber production      292
    • 3.17.9.3                Animal-based natural fiber production   293
• 3.18        LIGNIN 294
  • 3.18.1    Introduction       294
    • 3.18.1.1                What is lignin?   294
      • 3.18.1.1.1             Lignin structure 295
    • 3.18.1.2                Types of lignin    296
      • 3.18.1.2.1             Sulfur containing lignin  298
      • 3.18.1.2.2             Sulfur-free lignin from biorefinery process            298
    • 3.18.1.3                Properties           299
    • 3.18.1.4                The lignocellulose biorefinery     301
    • 3.18.1.5                Markets and applications              302
    • 3.18.1.6                Challenges for using lignin            304
  • 3.18.2    Lignin production processes        304
    • 3.18.2.1                Lignosulphonates            306
    • 3.18.2.2                Kraft Lignin          306
      • 3.18.2.2.1             LignoBoost process         307
      • 3.18.2.2.2             LignoForce method         307
      • 3.18.2.2.3             Sequential Liquid Lignin Recovery and Purification             308
      • 3.18.2.2.4             A-Recovery+      309
    • 3.18.2.3                Soda lignin          310
    • 3.18.2.4                Biorefinery lignin              310
      • 3.18.2.4.1             Commercial and pre-commercial biorefinery lignin production facilities and  processes    311
    • 3.18.2.5                Organosolv lignins            313
    • 3.18.2.6                Hydrolytic lignin                314
  • 3.18.3    Market for lignin               315
    • 3.18.3.1                Market drivers and trends for lignin         315
    • 3.18.3.2                Production capacities     316
      • 3.18.3.2.1             Technical lignin availability (dry ton/y)    316
      • 3.18.3.2.2             Biomass conversion (Biorefinery)             317
    • 3.18.3.3                Estimated consumption of lignin                317
    • 3.18.3.4                Prices    319
    • 3.18.3.5                Heat and power energy 319
    • 3.18.3.6                Pyrolysis and syngas       319
    • 3.18.3.7                Aromatic compounds     320
      • 3.18.3.7.1             Benzene, toluene and xylene      320
      • 3.18.3.7.2             Phenol and phenolic resins          320
      • 3.18.3.7.3             Vanillin 321
    • 3.18.3.8                Plastics and polymers     321
    • 3.18.3.9                Hydrogels            322
    • 3.18.3.10              Carbon materials              323
      • 3.18.3.10.1          Carbon black      323
      • 3.18.3.10.2          Activated carbons            323
      • 3.18.3.10.3          Carbon fiber       324
    • 3.18.3.11              Concrete             325
    • 3.18.3.12              Rubber 326
    • 3.18.3.13              Biofuels 326
    • 3.18.3.14              Bitumen and Asphalt      326
    • 3.18.3.15              Oil and gas          327
    • 3.18.3.16              Energy storage  328
      • 3.18.3.16.1          Supercapacitors 328
      • 3.18.3.16.2          Anodes for lithium-ion batteries 328
      • 3.18.3.16.3          Gel electrolytes for lithium-ion batteries                329
      • 3.18.3.16.4          Binders for lithium-ion batteries 329
      • 3.18.3.16.5          Cathodes for lithium-ion batteries            329
      • 3.18.3.16.6          Sodium-ion batteries      330
    • 3.18.3.17              Binders, emulsifiers and dispersants        330
    • 3.18.3.18              Chelating agents              332
    • 3.18.3.19              Ceramics              333
    • 3.18.3.20              Automotive interiors      333
    • 3.18.3.21              Fire retardants  334
    • 3.18.3.22              Antioxidants      334
    • 3.18.3.23              Lubricants           334
    • 3.18.3.24              Dust control       335
• 3.19        BIO-BASED AND SUSTAINABLE MATERIALS, PLASTICS AND POLYMERS COMPANY PROFILES            336 (538 company profiles)

4              BIO-BASED FUELS             778

• 4.1          The global biofuels market           778
  • 4.1.1      Diesel substitutes and alternatives           779
  • 4.1.2      Gasoline substitutes and alternatives      780
• 4.2          Comparison of biofuel costs 2022, by type            781
• 4.3          Types    782
  • 4.3.1      Solid Biofuels     782
  • 4.3.2      Liquid Biofuels  782
  • 4.3.3      Gaseous Biofuels             783
  • 4.3.4      Conventional Biofuels    783
  • 4.3.5      Advanced Biofuels           784
• 4.4          Feedstocks         785
  • 4.4.1      First-generation (1-G)    786
  • 4.4.2      Second-generation (2-G)              788
    • 4.4.2.1   Lignocellulosic wastes and residues         789
    • 4.4.2.2   Biorefinery lignin              790
  • 4.4.3      Third-generation (3-G)  794
    • 4.4.3.1   Algal biofuels     794
      • 4.4.3.1.1               Properties           795
      • 4.4.3.1.2               Advantages        795
  • 4.4.4      Fourth-generation (4-G) 797
  • 4.4.5      Advantages and disadvantages, by generation    797
• 4.5          HYDROCARBON BIOFUELS            799
  • 4.5.1      Biodiesel              799
    • 4.5.1.1   Biodiesel by generation 800
    • 4.5.1.2   Production of biodiesel and other biofuels            801
      • 4.5.1.2.1               Pyrolysis of biomass        802
      • 4.5.1.2.2               Vegetable oil transesterification 805
      • 4.5.1.2.3               Vegetable oil hydrogenation (HVO)         806
        • 4.5.1.2.3.1           Production process         807
      • 4.5.1.2.4               Biodiesel from tall oil      808
      • 4.5.1.2.5               Fischer-Tropsch BioDiesel             808
      • 4.5.1.2.6               Hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass    810
      • 4.5.1.2.7               CO2 capture and Fischer-Tropsch (FT)     811
      • 4.5.1.2.8               Dymethyl ether (DME)   811
    • 4.5.1.3   Global production and consumption        812
  • 4.5.2      Renewable diesel            814
    • 4.5.2.1   Production          814
    • 4.5.2.2   Global consumption       815
  • 4.5.3      Bio-jet (bio-aviation) fuels            817
    • 4.5.3.1   Description         817
    • 4.5.3.2   Global market   818
    • 4.5.3.3   Production pathways     818
  • 4.5.4      Costs     821
    • 4.5.4.1   Biojet fuel production capacities                821
    • 4.5.4.2   Challenges          822
    • 4.5.4.3   Global consumption       822
  • 4.5.5      Syngas  823
  • 4.5.6      Biogas and biomethane 824
    • 4.5.6.1   Feedstocks         827
  • 4.5.7      Bio-naphtha       828
    • 4.5.7.1   Overview            828
    • 4.5.7.2   Markets and applications              829
    • 4.5.7.3   Production capacities, by producer, current and planned               830
    • 4.5.7.4   Production capacities, total (tonnes), historical, current and planned        832
• 4.6          ALCOHOL FUELS               833
  • 4.6.1      Biomethanol      833
    • 4.6.1.1   Methanol-to gasoline technology             833
      • 4.6.1.1.1               Production processes     834
        • 4.6.1.1.1.1           Anaerobic digestion        835
        • 4.6.1.1.1.2           Biomass gasification        835
        • 4.6.1.1.1.3           Power to Methane          836
  • 4.6.2      Bioethanol          837
    • 4.6.2.1   Technology description 837
    • 4.6.2.2   1G Bio-Ethanol  838
    • 4.6.2.3   Ethanol to jet fuel technology     838
    • 4.6.2.4   Methanol from pulp & paper production               839
    • 4.6.2.5   Sulfite spent liquor fermentation              839
    • 4.6.2.6   Gasification        840
      • 4.6.2.6.1               Biomass gasification and syngas fermentation    840
    • 4.6.2.7   Biomass gasification and syngas thermochemical conversion        840
    • 4.6.2.8   CO2 capture and alcohol synthesis           841
    • 4.6.2.9   Biomass hydrolysis and fermentation     841
      • 4.6.2.9.1               Separate hydrolysis and fermentation    841
      • 4.6.2.9.2               Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF)     842
      • 4.6.2.9.3               Pre-hydrolysis and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (PSSF)             842
      • 4.6.2.9.4               Simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (SSCF)            843
      • 4.6.2.9.5               Direct conversion (consolidated bioprocessing) (CBP)      843
    • 4.6.2.10                Global ethanol consumption       844
  • 4.6.3      Biobutanol          845
  • 4.6.3.1   Production          847
• 4.7          BIOFUEL FROM PLASTIC WASTE AND USED TIRES               848
  • 4.7.1      Plastic pyrolysis 848
  • 4.7.2      Used tires pyrolysis         849
    • 4.7.2.1   Conversion to biofuel     850
• 4.8          ELECTROFUELS (E-FUELS)             852
  • 4.8.1      Introduction       852
    • 4.8.1.1   Benefits of e-fuels           854
  • 4.8.2      Feedstocks         855
    • 4.8.2.1   Hydrogen electrolysis     855
    • 4.8.2.2   CO2 capture       856
  • 4.8.3      Production          856
    • 4.8.3.1   eFuel production facilities, current and planned 859
  • 4.8.4      Electrolysers      860
    • 4.8.4.1   Commercial alkaline electrolyser cells (AECs)       861
    • 4.8.4.2   PEM electrolysers (PEMEC)         861
    • 4.8.4.3   High-temperature solid oxide electrolyser cells (SOECs)  862
  • 4.8.5      Costs     862
  • 4.8.6      Market challenges           865
  • 4.8.7      Companies         866
• 4.9          ALGAE-DERIVED BIOFUELS           867
  • 4.9.1      Technology description 867
  • 4.9.2      Production          867
• 4.10        GREEN AMMONIA           869
  • 4.10.1    Production          869
    • 4.10.1.1                Decarbonisation of ammonia production               871
    • 4.10.1.2                Green ammonia projects              872
  • 4.10.2    Green ammonia synthesis methods         872
    • 4.10.2.1                Haber-Bosch process      872
    • 4.10.2.2                Biological nitrogen fixation          873
    • 4.10.2.3                Electrochemical production         874
      • 4.10.2.3.1             Chemical looping processes        874
  • 4.10.3    Blue ammonia   874
    • 4.10.3.1                Blue ammonia projects  874
  • 4.10.4    Markets and applications              875
    • 4.10.4.1                Chemical energy storage              875
      • 4.10.4.1.1             Ammonia fuel cells          875
    • 4.10.4.2                Marine fuel         876
  • 4.10.5    Costs     878
  • 4.10.6    Estimated market demand           880
  • 4.10.7    Companies and projects 880
• 4.11        BIOFUELS FROM CARBON CAPTURE         882
  • 4.11.1    Overview            883
  • 4.11.2    CO2 capture from point sources 885
  • 4.11.3    Production routes            886
  • 4.11.4    Direct air capture (DAC) 887
    • 4.11.4.1                Description         887
    • 4.11.4.2                Deployment       889
    • 4.11.4.3                Point source carbon capture versus Direct Air Capture     890
    • 4.11.4.4                Technologies     891
      • 4.11.4.4.1             Solid sorbents   892
      • 4.11.4.4.2             Liquid sorbents 894
      • 4.11.4.4.3             Liquid solvents  895
      • 4.11.4.4.4             Airflow equipment integration   896
      • 4.11.4.4.5             Passive Direct Air Capture (PDAC)             896
    • 4.11.4.5                Direct conversion             897
      • 4.11.4.5.1             Co-product generation  897
      • 4.11.4.5.2             Low Temperature DAC  897
      • 4.11.4.5.3             Regeneration methods 897
    • 4.11.4.6                Commercialization and plants     898
    • 4.11.4.7                Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) in DAC             899
    • 4.11.4.8                DAC plants and projects-current and planned      899
    • 4.11.4.9                Markets for DAC               906
    • 4.11.4.10              Costs     907
    • 4.11.4.11              Challenges          912
    • 4.11.4.12              Players and production  913
  • 4.11.5    Methanol            913
  • 4.11.6    Algae based biofuels       914
  • 4.11.7    CO₂-fuels from solar        915
  • 4.11.8    Companies         917
  • 4.11.9    Challenges          919
• 4.12        BIO-BASED FUELS COMPANY PROFILES   920 (164 company profiles)

5              BIO-BASED PAINTS AND COATINGS          1052

• 5.1          The global paints and coatings market    1052
• 5.2          Bio-based paints and coatings     1052
• 5.3          Challenges using bio-based paints and coatings   1053
  • 5.4          Types of bio-based coatings and materials             1054
    • 5.4.1      Alkyd coatings   1054
      • 5.4.1.1   Alkyd resin properties    1054
      • 5.4.1.2   Biobased alkyd coatings 1055
      • 5.4.1.3   Products              1056
    • 5.4.2      Polyurethane coatings   1057
      • 5.4.2.1   Properties           1057
      • 5.4.2.2   Biobased polyurethane coatings 1058
      • 5.4.2.3   Products              1059
    • 5.4.3      Epoxy coatings  1060
      • 5.4.3.1   Properties           1060
      • 5.4.3.2   Biobased epoxy coatings               1061
      • 5.4.3.3   Products              1062
    • 5.4.4      Acrylate resins   1063
      • 5.4.4.1   Properties           1064
      • 5.4.4.2   Biobased acrylates           1064
      • 5.4.4.3   Products              1064
    • 5.4.5      Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA) 1065
      • 5.4.5.1   Properties           1067
      • 5.4.5.2   Bio-PLA coatings and films            1068
    • 5.4.6      Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)     1068
      • 5.4.6.1   Properties           1070
      • 5.4.6.2   PHA coatings      1072
      • 5.4.6.3   Commercially available PHAs      1073
    • 5.4.7      Cellulose              1075
      • 5.4.7.1   Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) 1081
        • 5.4.7.1.1               Properties           1081
        • 5.4.7.1.2               Applications in paints and coatings           1082
      • 5.4.7.2   Cellulose nanofibers       1083
        • 5.4.7.2.1               Properties           1083
        • 5.4.7.2.2               Product developers        1085
      • 5.4.7.3   Cellulose nanocrystals    1087
      • 5.4.7.4   Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNC)    1089
    • 5.4.8      Rosins   1089
    • 5.4.9      Biobased carbon black   1090
      • 5.4.9.1   Lignin-based      1090
      • 5.4.9.2   Algae-based       1090
    • 5.4.10    Lignin    1090
      • 5.4.10.1                Application in coatings   1091
    • 5.4.11    Edible coatings  1091
    • 5.4.12    Protein-based biomaterials for coatings 1093
      • 5.4.12.1                Plant derived proteins   1093
      • 5.4.12.2                Animal origin proteins   1093
    • 5.4.13    Alginate               1095
• 5.5          Market for bio-based paints and coatings              1097
  • 5.5.1      Global market revenues to 2033, total    1097
  • 5.5.2      Global market revenues to 2033, by market         1098
• 5.6          BIO-BASED PAINTS AND COATINGS COMPANY PROFILES 1102 (130 company profiles)

6              REFERENCES       1223

List of Tables

• Table 1. List of Bio-based chemicals.        62
• Table 2. Lactide applications.      77
• Table 3. Biobased MEG producers capacities.       80
• Table 4. Bio-naphtha market value chain.              82
• Table 5. Bio-naptha producers and production capacities.              84
• Table 6. Issues related to the use of plastics.        90
• Table 7. Type of biodegradation.               96
• Table 8. Advantages and disadvantages of biobased plastics compared to conventional plastics.   97
• Table 9. Mechanical properties of natural and man-made fibers. 99
• Table 10. Properties of bio-based and synthetic resin systems.    101
• Table 11. Properties of polymer matrices.             102
• Table 12. Types of Bio-based and/or Biodegradable Plastics, applications.               103
• Table 13. Market leader by Bio-based and/or Biodegradable Plastic types.             104
• Table 14. Bioplastics regional production capacities, 1,000 tons, 2019-2033.           105
• Table 15. Polylactic acid (PLA) market analysis-manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications.               117
• Table 16. Lactic acid producers and production capacities.             119
• Table 17. PLA producers and production capacities.          120
• Table 18. Planned PLA capacity expansions in China.         120
• Table 19. Bio-based Polyethylene terephthalate (Bio-PET) market analysis- manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications.              122
• Table 20. Bio-based Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) producers and production capacities (tons).             123
• Table 21. Polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT) market analysis-manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications.       125
• Table 22. Production capacities of Polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT), by leading producers.   125
• Table 23. Polyethylene furanoate (PEF) market analysis-manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications.                127
• Table 24. PEF vs. PET.     128
• Table 25. FDCA and PEF producers.          129
• Table 26. Bio-based polyamides (Bio-PA) market analysis - manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications.                131
• Table 27. Leading Bio-PA producers production capacities.            132
• Table 28. Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) market analysis- manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications.              134
• Table 29. Leading PBAT producers, production capacities and brands.      134
• Table 30. Bio-PBS market analysis-manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications.       136
• Table 31. Leading PBS producers and production capacities.          137
• Table 32. Bio-based Polyethylene (Bio-PE) market analysis- manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications.                138
• Table 33. Leading Bio-PE producers.        139
• Table 34. Bio-PP market analysis- manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications.        140
• Table 35. Leading Bio-PP producers and capacities.           140
• Table 36. Starch-based bioplastic producers.       142
• Table 37.Types of PHAs and properties. 147
• Table 38. Comparison of the physical properties of different PHAs with conventional petroleum-based polymers. 149
• Table 39. Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) extraction methods.          151
• Table 40. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) market analysis. 153
• Table 41. Commercially available PHAs.  154
• Table 42. Markets and applications for PHAs.       156
• Table 43. Applications, advantages and disadvantages of PHAs in packaging.         157
• Table 44. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) producers.           160
• Table 45. Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) market analysis-manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications.                163
• Table 46. Leading MFC producers and capacities.               164
• Table 47. Synthesis methods for cellulose nanocrystals (CNC).     165
• Table 48. CNC sources, size and yield.      166
• Table 49. CNC properties.             167
• Table 50. Mechanical properties of CNC and other reinforcement materials.         168
• Table 51. Applications of nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC).               169
• Table 52. Cellulose nanocrystals analysis.               170
• Table 53: Cellulose nanocrystal production capacities and production process, by producer.          171
• Table 54. Applications of cellulose nanofibers (CNF).        172
• Table 55. Cellulose nanofibers market analysis.   174
• Table 56. CNF production capacities (by type, wet or dry) and production process, by producer, metric tonnes.    175
• Table 57. Applications of bacterial nanocellulose (BNC). 179
• Table 58. Types of protein based-bioplastics, applications and companies.             181
• Table 59. Types of algal and fungal based-bioplastics, applications and companies.             182
• Table 60. Overview of alginate-description, properties, application and market size.          183
• Table 61. Companies developing algal-based bioplastics. 184
• Table 62. Overview of mycelium fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.          185
• Table 63. Companies developing mycelium-based bioplastics.      187
• Table 64. Overview of chitosan-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.         188
• Table 65. Global production capacities of biobased and sustainable plastics in 2019-2033, by region, tons.              189
• Table 66. Biobased and sustainable plastics producers in North America. 190
• Table 67. Biobased and sustainable plastics producers in Europe.               191
• Table 68. Biobased and sustainable plastics producers in Asia-Pacific.       192
• Table 69. Biobased and sustainable plastics producers in Latin America.  193
• Table 70. Processes for bioplastics in packaging. 196
• Table 71. Comparison of bioplastics’ (PLA and PHAs) properties to other common polymers used in product packaging.                198
• Table 72. Typical applications for bioplastics in flexible packaging.              199
• Table 73. Types of bio-based packaging materials and price/kg.   200
• Table 74. Typical applications for bioplastics in rigid packaging.   202
• Table 75. Biocomposites in the automotive market, by manufacturer.      205
• Table 76. Applications of natural fibers in the automotive industry.           207
• Table 77. Natural fiber-reinforced polymer composite in the automotive market. 209
• Table 78. Applications of natural fibers in the building/construction sector.           211
• Table 79. Bio-based leather companies. 216
• Table 80. Biocomposites in the sports and leisure sector-market drivers, applications and challenges for NF use.  220
• Table 81. Types of next-gen natural fibers.            224
• Table 82. Application, manufacturing method, and matrix materials of natural fibers.        227
• Table 83. Typical properties of natural fibers.      229
• Table 84. Commercially available natural fiber products. 230
• Table 85. Market drivers for natural fibers.           233
• Table 86. Overview of cotton fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 235
• Table 87. Overview of kapok fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 236
• Table 88. Overview of luffa fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.    238
• Table 89. Overview of jute fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.     239
• Table 90. Overview of hemp fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.  241
• Table 91. Overview of flax fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.      242
• Table 92. Overview of ramie fibers- description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 244
• Table 93. Overview of kenaf fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.  245
• Table 94. Overview of sisal leaf fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.            247
• Table 95. Overview of abaca fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.  248
• Table 96. Overview of coir fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.      250
• Table 97. Overview of banana fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.               251
• Table 98. Overview of pineapple fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.         253
• Table 99. Overview of rice fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.      254
• Table 100. Overview of corn fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.  255
• Table 101. Overview of switch grass fibers-description, properties and applications.          256
• Table 102. Overview of sugarcane fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and application and market size.        256
• Table 103. Overview of bamboo fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.          257
• Table 104. Overview of mycelium fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.       261
• Table 105. Overview of chitosan fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.          262
• Table 106. Overview of alginate-description, properties, application and market size.        263
• Table 107. Overview of wool fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 264
• Table 108. Alternative wool materials producers.              265
• Table 109. Overview of silk fibers-description, properties, application and market size.     266
• Table 110. Alternative silk materials producers.  267
• Table 111. Alternative leather materials producers.          268
• Table 112. Next-gen fur producers.          270
• Table 113. Alternative down materials producers.             270
• Table 114. Applications of natural fiber composites.         271
• Table 115. Typical properties of short natural fiber-thermoplastic composites.     273
• Table 116. Properties of non-woven natural fiber mat composites.            274
• Table 117. Properties of aligned natural fiber composites.             275
• Table 118. Properties of natural fiber-bio-based polymer compounds.     275
• Table 119. Properties of natural fiber-bio-based polymer non-woven mats.           276
• Table 120. Natural fibers in the aerospace sector-market drivers, applications and challenges for NF use. 277
• Table 121. Natural fiber-reinforced polymer composite in the automotive market.             279
• Table 122. Natural fibers in the aerospace sector- market drivers, applications and challenges for NF use. 280
• Table 123. Applications of natural fibers in the automotive industry.         282
• Table 124. Natural fibers in the building/construction sector- market drivers, applications and challenges for NF use.                283
• Table 125. Applications of natural fibers in the building/construction sector.         283
• Table 126. Natural fibers in the sports and leisure sector-market drivers, applications and challenges for NF use.  284
• Table 127. Natural fibers in the textiles sector- market drivers, applications and challenges for NF use.     285
• Table 128. Natural fibers in the packaging sector-market drivers, applications and challenges for NF use. 288
• Table 129. Technical lignin types and applications.             296
• Table 130. Classification of technical lignins.         298
• Table 131. Lignin content of selected biomass.   299
• Table 132. Properties of lignins and their applications.     300
• Table 133. Example markets and applications for lignin.  302
• Table 134. Processes for lignin production.           304
• Table 135. Biorefinery feedstocks.           310
• Table 136. Comparison of pulping and biorefinery lignins.              310
• Table 137. Commercial and pre-commercial biorefinery lignin production facilities and  processes              311
• Table 138. Market drivers and trends for lignin.  315
• Table 139. Production capacities of technical lignin producers.    316
• Table 140. Production capacities of biorefinery lignin producers. 317
• Table 141. Estimated consumption of lignin, 2019-2033 (000 MT).             318
• Table 142. Prices of benzene, toluene, xylene and their derivatives.          320
• Table 143. Application of lignin in plastics and polymers. 321
• Table 144. Lignin-derived anodes in lithium batteries.     328
• Table 145. Application of lignin in binders, emulsifiers and dispersants.   330
• Table 146. Lactips plastic pellets.              556
• Table 147. Oji Holdings CNF products.     634
• Table 148. Comparison of biofuel costs (USD/liter) 2022, by type.              781
• Table 149. Categories and examples of solid biofuel.        782
• Table 150. Comparison of biofuels and e-fuels to fossil and electricity.      784
• Table 151. Classification of biomass feedstock.   785
• Table 152. Biorefinery feedstocks.           785
• Table 153. Feedstock conversion pathways.         786
• Table 154. First-Generation Feedstocks. 786
• Table 155.  Lignocellulosic ethanol plants and capacities.                789
• Table 156. Comparison of pulping and biorefinery lignins.              790
• Table 157. Commercial and pre-commercial biorefinery lignin production facilities and  processes              791
• Table 158. Operating and planned lignocellulosic biorefineries and industrial flue gas-to-ethanol. 793
• Table 159. Properties of microalgae and macroalgae.       795
• Table 160. Yield of algae and other biodiesel crops.           796
• Table 161. Advantages and disadvantages of biofuels, by generation.       797
• Table 162. Biodiesel by generation.         800
• Table 163. Biodiesel production techniques.        802
• Table 164. Summary of pyrolysis technique under different operating conditions.              802
• Table 165. Biomass materials and their bio-oil yield.         804
• Table 166. Biofuel production cost from the biomass pyrolysis process.   804
• Table 167. Properties of vegetable oils in comparison to diesel.   806
• Table 168. Main producers of HVO and capacities.             807
• Table 169. Example commercial Development of BtL processes. 808
• Table 170. Pilot or demo projects for biomass to liquid (BtL) processes.   809
• Table 171. Global biodiesel consumption, 2010-2033 (M litres/year).       813
• Table 172. Global renewable diesel consumption, to 2033 (M litres/year).              816
• Table 173. Advantages and disadvantages of biojet fuel  817
• Table 174. Production pathways for bio-jet fuel. 819
• Table 175. Current and announced biojet fuel facilities and capacities.     821
• Table 176. Global bio-jet fuel consumption to 2033 (Million litres/year). 823
• Table 177. Biogas feedstocks.     827
• Table 178. Bio-based naphtha markets and applications. 829
• Table 179. Bio-naphtha market value chain.         829
• Table 180. Bio-based Naphtha production capacities, by producer.            830
• Table 181. Comparison of biogas, biomethane and natural gas.   834
• Table 182.  Processes in bioethanol production. 842
• Table 183. Microorganisms used in CBP for ethanol production from biomass lignocellulosic.         843
• Table 184. Ethanol consumption 2010-2033 (million litres).           844
• Table 185. Applications of e-fuels, by type.           853
• Table 186. Overview of e-fuels. 854
• Table 187. Benefits of e-fuels.    854
• Table 188. eFuel production facilities, current and planned.          859
• Table 189. Main characteristics of different electrolyzer technologies.     860
• Table 190. Market challenges for e-fuels.              865
• Table 191. E-fuels companies.    866
• Table 192. Green ammonia projects (current and planned).          872
• Table 193. Blue ammonia projects.          874
• Table 194. Ammonia fuel cell technologies.          875
• Table 195. Market overview of green ammonia in marine fuel.    876
• Table 196. Summary of marine alternative fuels. 877
• Table 197. Estimated costs for different types of ammonia.           879
• Table 198. Main players in green ammonia.          880
• Table 199. Market overview for CO2 derived fuels.           883
• Table 200. Point source examples.           886
• Table 201. Advantages and disadvantages of DAC.             889
• Table 202. Companies developing airflow equipment integration with DAC.           896
• Table 203. Companies developing Passive Direct Air Capture (PDAC) technologies.             896
• Table 204. Companies developing regeneration methods for DAC technologies.  897
• Table 205. DAC companies and technologies.      898
• Table 206. DAC technology developers and production.  900
• Table 207. DAC projects in development.              905
• Table 208. Markets for DAC.        906
• Table 209. Costs summary for DAC.          907
• Table 210. Cost estimates of DAC.             910
• Table 211. Challenges for DAC technology.           912
• Table 212. DAC companies and technologies.      913
• Table 213. Microalgae products and prices.          915
• Table 214. Main Solar-Driven CO2 Conversion Approaches.          916
• Table 215. Companies in CO2-derived fuel products.        917
• Table 216. Granbio Nanocellulose Processes.      973
• Table 217. Types of alkyd resins and properties. 1054
• Table 218. Market summary for biobased alkyd coatings-raw materials, advantages, disadvantages, applications and producers.          1056
• Table 219. Biobased alkyd coating products.        1056
• Table 220. Types of polyols.         1058
• Table 221. Polyol producers.       1059
• Table 222. Biobased polyurethane coating products.        1059
• Table 223. Market summary for biobased epoxy resins.  1061
• Table 224. Biobased polyurethane coating products.        1063
• Table 225. Biobased acrylate resin products.        1064
• Table 226. Polylactic acid (PLA) market analysis. 1065
• Table 227. PLA producers and production capacities.        1067
• Table 228. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) market analysis.              1069
• Table 229.Types of PHAs and properties.               1072
• Table 230. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) producers.        1073
• Table 231. Commercially available PHAs.               1074
• Table 232. Properties of micro/nanocellulose, by type.    1077
• Table 233. Types of nanocellulose.           1080
• Table 234: MFC production capacities (by type, wet or dry) and production process, by producer, metric tonnes. 1082
• Table 235. Market overview for cellulose nanofibers in paints and coatings.           1083
• Table 236. Companies developing cellulose nanofibers products in paints and coatings.   1085
• Table 237. CNC properties.          1087
• Table 238: Cellulose nanocrystal capacities (by type, wet or dry) and production process, by producer, metric tonnes.                1088
• Table 239. Edible coatings market summary.       1092
• Table 240. Types of protein based-biomaterials, applications and companies.       1094
• Table 241. Overview of alginate-description, properties, application and market size.        1095
• Table 242. Global market revenues for biobased paints and coatings, 2018-2033 (billions USD).    1097
• Table 243. Market revenues for biobased paints and coatings, 2018-2033(billions USD), conservative estimate.    1098
• Table 244. Market revenues for biobased paints and coatings, 2018-2033 (billions USD), high estimate.    1100
• Table 245. Oji Holdings CNF products.     1187

List of Figures

• Figure 1. Bio-based chemicals and feedstocks production capacities, 2018-2033.  63
• Figure 2. Overview of Toray process. Overview of process             64
• Figure 3. Production capacities for 11-Aminoundecanoic acid (11-AA)      65
• Figure 4. 1,4-Butanediol (BDO) production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes).            66
• Figure 5. Dodecanedioic acid (DDDA) production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes). 67
• Figure 6. Epichlorohydrin production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes).      68
• Figure 7. Ethylene production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes).     69
• Figure 8. Potential industrial uses of 3-hydroxypropanoic acid.     74
• Figure 9. L-lactic acid (L-LA) production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes).  76
• Figure 10. Lactide production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes).     78
• Figure 11. Bio-MEG production capacities, 2018-2033.      80
• Figure 12. Bio-MPG production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes).  81
• Figure 13. Biobased naphtha production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes). 84
• Figure 14. 1,3-Propanediol (1,3-PDO) production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes). 86
• Figure 15. Sebacic acid production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes).           87
• Figure 16. Global plastics production 1950-2021, million metric tons.       89
• Figure 17. The circular plastic economy. 92
• Figure 18.  Coca-Cola PlantBottle®.           94
• Figure 19. Interrelationship between conventional, bio-based and biodegradable plastics.              95
• Figure 20. Bioplastics regional production capacities, 1,000 tons, 2019-2033.         106
• Figure 21. Bio-based Polyethylene (Bio-PE), 1,000 tons, 2019-2033.            107
• Figure 22. Bio-based Polyethylene terephthalate (Bio-PET) production capacities, 1,000 tons, 2019-2033   108
• Figure 23. Bio-based polyamides (Bio-PA) production capacities, 1,000 tons, 2019-2033.   109
• Figure 24. Bio-based Polypropylene (Bio-PP) production capacities, 1,000 tons, 2019-2033.             110
• Figure 25. Bio-based Polytrimethylene terephthalate (Bio-PTT) production capacities, 1,000 tons, 2019-2033.         111
• Figure 26. Bio-based Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) production capacities, 1,000 tons, 2019-2033.                112
• Figure 27. Bio-based Polybutylene succinate (PBS) production capacities, 1,000 tons, 2019-2033.  113
• Figure 28. Bio-based Polylactic acid (PLA) production capacities, 1,000 tons, 2019-2033.    114
• Figure 29. PHA production capacities, 1,000 tons, 2019-2033.        115
• Figure 30. Starch blends production capacities, 1,000 tons, 2019-2033.     116
• Figure 31. Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons).              122
• Figure 32. Polyethylene terephthalate (Bio-PET) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons)     124
• Figure 33. Polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons).   126
• Figure 34. Production capacities of Polyethylene furanoate (PEF) to 2025.               129
• Figure 35. Polyethylene furanoate (Bio-PEF) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons).            130
• Figure 36. Polyamides (Bio-PA) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons).      133
• Figure 37. Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (Bio-PBAT) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons).       135
• Figure 38. Polybutylene succinate (PBS) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons).    138
• Figure 39. Polyethylene (Bio-PE) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons).   139
• Figure 40. Polypropylene (Bio-PP) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons). 141
• Figure 41. PHA family.    147
• Figure 42. PHA production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons).     162
• Figure 43. TEM image of cellulose nanocrystals. 165
• Figure 44. CNC preparation.        165
• Figure 45. Extracting CNC from trees.      166
• Figure 46. CNC slurry.     169
• Figure 47. CNF gel.           172
• Figure 48. Bacterial nanocellulose shapes              178
• Figure 49. BLOOM masterbatch from Algix.           184
• Figure 50. Typical structure of mycelium-based foam.     186
• Figure 51. Commercial mycelium composite construction materials.          187
• Figure 52. Global production capacities of biobased and sustainable plastics 2022.              189
• Figure 53. Global production capacities of biobased and sustainable plastics 2025.              190
• Figure 54. Global production capacities for biobased and sustainable plastics by end user market 2019-2033, 1,000 tons.      194
• Figure 55. Notpla water bottle.  195
• Figure 56. PHA bioplastics products.        197
• Figure 57. Global market demand for biobased and biodegradable plastics for flexible packaging 2019–2033 (‘000 tonnes).               200
• Figure 58. Sulupac packaging.     201
• Figure 59. Shellworks packaging.               202
• Figure 60. Bioplastics for rigid packaging, 2019–2033 (‘000 tonnes).          203
• Figure 61. Global market demand for biobased and biodegradable plastics in consumer products 2019-2033, in 1,000 tons.      204
• Figure 62. Car door produced from Hemp fiber.  207
• Figure 63. Natural fiber composites in the BMW M4 GT4 racing car.          208
• Figure 64. Mercedes-Benz components containing natural fibers.               208
• Figure 65. Global market demand for biocomposites 2019-2033, in automotive, in 1,000 tons.      210
• Figure 66. Global market demand for biocomposites 2019-2033, in building and construction, in 1,000 tons.          212
• Figure 67. AlgiKicks sneaker, made with the Algiknit biopolymer gel.         214
• Figure 68. Reebok's [REE]GROW running shoes. 214
• Figure 69. Camper Runner K21.  216
• Figure 70. Global market demand for biocomposites 2019-2033, in textiles, in 1,000 tons.              218
• Figure 71. Lonely Mountain natural fiber snowboard.      219
• Figure 72. Global market demand for biocomposites 2019-2033, in sports & leisure equipment, in 1,000 tons.       220
• Figure 73. Global market demand for biobased and biodegradable plastics in electronics 2019-2033, in 1,000 tons.                221
• Figure 74. Biodegradable mulch films.     222
• Figure 75. Global market demand for biobased and biodegradable plastics in agriculture 2019-2033, in 1,000 tons.                223
• Figure 76. Types of natural fibers.             227
• Figure 77. Absolut natural based fiber bottle cap.              230
• Figure 78. Adidas algae-ink tees.               230
• Figure 79. Carlsberg natural fiber beer bottle.     230
• Figure 80. Miratex watch bands. 231
• Figure 81. Adidas Made with Nature Ultraboost 22.           231
• Figure 82. PUMA RE:SUEDE sneaker        231
• Figure 83. Cotton production volume 2018-2033 (Million MT).     236
• Figure 84. Kapok production volume 2018-2033 (MT).     237
• Figure 85.  Luffa cylindrica fiber. 238
• Figure 86. Jute production volume 2018-2033 (Million MT).          240
• Figure 87. Hemp fiber production volume 2018-2033 ( MT).          242
• Figure 88. Flax fiber production volume 2018-2033 (MT).               243
• Figure 89. Ramie fiber production volume 2018-2033 (MT).          245
• Figure 90. Kenaf fiber production volume 2018-2033 (MT).           246
• Figure 91. Sisal fiber production volume 2018-2033 (MT).              248
• Figure 92. Abaca fiber production volume 2018-2033 (MT).          249
• Figure 93. Coir fiber production volume 2018-2033 (MILLION MT).            251
• Figure 94. Banana fiber production volume 2018-2033 (MT).        252
• Figure 95. Pineapple fiber.           253
• Figure 96. A bag made with pineapple biomaterial from the H&M Conscious Collection 2019.         254
• Figure 97. Bamboo fiber production volume 2018-2033 (MILLION MT).    258
• Figure 98. Typical structure of mycelium-based foam.     259
• Figure 99. Commercial mycelium composite construction materials.          260
• Figure 100. Frayme Mylo™️.         260
• Figure 101. BLOOM masterbatch from Algix.        264
• Figure 102. Conceptual landscape of next-gen leather materials. 268
• Figure 103. Hemp fibers combined with PP in car door panel.       277
• Figure 104. Car door produced from Hemp fiber.               278
• Figure 105. Mercedes-Benz components containing natural fibers.            279
• Figure 106. AlgiKicks sneaker, made with the Algiknit biopolymer gel.       286
• Figure 107. Coir mats for erosion control.              287
• Figure 108. Global fiber production in 2021, by fiber type, million MT and %.        290
• Figure 109. Global fiber production (million MT) to 2020-2033.     291
• Figure 110. Plant-based fiber production 2018-2033, by fiber type, MT.   292
• Figure 111. Animal based fiber production 2018-2033, by fiber type, million MT. 293
• Figure 112. High purity lignin.     295
• Figure 113. Lignocellulose architecture. 295
• Figure 114. Extraction processes to separate lignin from lignocellulosic biomass and corresponding technical lignins.                296
• Figure 115. The lignocellulose biorefinery.            302
• Figure 116. LignoBoost process. 307
• Figure 117. LignoForce system for lignin recovery from black liquor.          308
• Figure 118. Sequential liquid-lignin recovery and purification (SLPR) system.         308
• Figure 119. A-Recovery+ chemical recovery concept.       310
• Figure 120.  Schematic of a biorefinery for production of carriers and chemicals. 311
• Figure 121. Organosolv lignin.     314
• Figure 122. Hydrolytic lignin powder.      314
• Figure 123. Estimated consumption of lignin, 2019-2033 (000 MT).            319
• Figure 124. Schematic of WISA plywood home.   321
• Figure 125. Lignin based activated carbon.            323
• Figure 126. Lignin/celluose precursor.     325
• Figure 127. Pluumo.        340
• Figure 128. ANDRITZ Lignin Recovery process.    351
• Figure 129. Anpoly cellulose nanofiber hydrogel.               354
• Figure 130. MEDICELLU™.            354
• Figure 131. Asahi Kasei CNF fabric sheet.               364
• Figure 132. Properties of Asahi Kasei cellulose nanofiber nonwoven fabric.            365
• Figure 133. CNF nonwoven fabric.            366
• Figure 134. Roof frame made of natural fiber.     376
• Figure 135. Beyond Leather Materials product.   380
• Figure 136. BIOLO e-commerce mailer bag made from PHA.          388
• Figure 137. Reusable and recyclable foodservice cups, lids, and straws from Joinease Hong Kong Ltd., made with plant-based NuPlastiQ BioPolymer from BioLogiQ, Inc. 390
• Figure 138. Fiber-based screw cap.           403
• Figure 139. formicobio™ technology.      425
• Figure 140. nanoforest-S.             428
• Figure 141. nanoforest-PDP.       428
• Figure 142. nanoforest-MB.        429
• Figure 143. sunliquid® production process.           437
• Figure 144. CuanSave film.           440
• Figure 145. Celish.           441
• Figure 146. Trunk lid incorporating CNF. 443
• Figure 147. ELLEX products.         445
• Figure 148. CNF-reinforced PP compounds.          445
• Figure 149. Kirekira! toilet wipes.              446
• Figure 150. Color CNF.   447
• Figure 151. Rheocrysta spray.     453
• Figure 152. DKS CNF products.   454
• Figure 153. Domsjö process.       456
• Figure 154. Mushroom leather. 467
• Figure 155. CNF based on citrus peel.      469
• Figure 156. Citrus cellulose nanofiber.    469
• Figure 157. Filler Bank CNC products.      482
• Figure 158. Fibers on kapok tree and after processing.     485
• Figure 159.  TMP-Bio Process.    488
• Figure 160. Flow chart of the lignocellulose biorefinery pilot plant in Leuna.          489
• Figure 161. Water-repellent cellulose.    491
• Figure 162. Cellulose Nanofiber (CNF) composite with polyethylene (PE). 493
• Figure 163. PHA production process.       494
• Figure 164. Fungi Solutions packaging.    495
• Figure 165. CNF products from Furukawa Electric.              496
• Figure 166. AVAPTM process.     506
• Figure 167. GreenPower+™ process.       507
• Figure 168. Cutlery samples (spoon, knife, fork) made of nano cellulose and biodegradable plastic composite materials.            510
• Figure 169. Non-aqueous CNF dispersion "Senaf" (Photo shows 5% of plasticizer).              513
• Figure 170. CNF gel.        520
• Figure 171. Block nanocellulose material.              521
• Figure 172. CNF products developed by Hokuetsu.            521
• Figure 173. Marine leather products.      524
• Figure 174. Inner Mettle Milk products. 529
• Figure 175. Kami Shoji CNF products.      542
• Figure 176. Dual Graft System.   544
• Figure 177. Engine cover utilizing Kao CNF composite resins.        545
• Figure 178. Acrylic resin blended with modified CNF (fluid) and its molded product (transparent film), and image obtained with AFM (CNF 10wt% blended).           546
• Figure 179. Kel Labs yarn.             547
• Figure 180. 0.3% aqueous dispersion of sulfated esterified CNF and dried transparent film (front side).     552
• Figure 181. Lignin gel.    563
• Figure 182. BioFlex process.        567
• Figure 183. Nike Algae Ink graphic tee.   568
• Figure 184. LX Process.  573
• Figure 185. Made of Air's HexChar panels.            575
• Figure 186. TransLeather.             576
• Figure 187. Chitin nanofiber product.      582
• Figure 188. Marusumi Paper cellulose nanofiber products.            583
• Figure 189. FibriMa cellulose nanofiber powder. 584
• Figure 190. METNIN™ Lignin refining technology.              588
• Figure 191. IPA synthesis method.            592
• Figure 192. MOGU-Wave panels.              596
• Figure 193. CNF slurries.                597
• Figure 194. Range of CNF products.          597
• Figure 195. Reishi.           602
• Figure 196. Compostable water pod.       622
• Figure 197. Leather made from leaves.   623
• Figure 198. Nike shoe with beLEAF™.      624
• Figure 199. CNF clear sheets.      634
• Figure 200. Oji Holdings CNF polycarbonate product.       635
• Figure 201. Enfinity cellulosic ethanol technology process.            652
• Figure 202. Fabric consisting of 70 per cent wool and 30 per cent Qmilk. 657
• Figure 203. XCNF.            665
• Figure 204: Plantrose process.    667
• Figure 205. LOVR hemp leather. 670
• Figure 206. CNF insulation flat plates.     673
• Figure 207. Hansa lignin.               679
• Figure 208. Manufacturing process for STARCEL. 683
• Figure 209. Manufacturing process for STARCEL. 687
• Figure 210. Shellworks packaging.             694
• Figure 211. 3D printed cellulose shoe.    698
• Figure 212. Lyocell process.         701
• Figure 213. North Face Spiber Moon Parka.          706
• Figure 214. PANGAIA LAB NXT GEN Hoodie.         707
• Figure 215. Spider silk production.            708
• Figure 216. Stora Enso lignin battery materials.   713
• Figure 217. 2 wt.％ CNF suspension.       714
• Figure 218. BiNFi-s Dry Powder. 715
• Figure 219. BiNFi-s Dry Powder and Propylene (PP) Complex Pellet.          715
• Figure 220. Silk nanofiber (right) and cocoon of raw material.       716
• Figure 221. Sulapac cosmetics containers.             718
• Figure 222.  Sulzer equipment for PLA polymerization processing.              719
• Figure 223. Solid Novolac Type lignin modified phenolic resins.    720
• Figure 224. Teijin bioplastic film for door handles.             729
• Figure 225. Corbion FDCA production process.    738
• Figure 226. Comparison of weight reduction effect using CNF.     740
• Figure 227. CNF resin products. 746
• Figure 228. UPM biorefinery process.     748
• Figure 229. Vegea production process.   753
• Figure 230. The Proesa® Process.              754
• Figure 231. Goldilocks process and applications. 756
• Figure 232. Visolis’ Hybrid Bio-Thermocatalytic Process. 760
• Figure 233. HefCel-coated wood (left) and untreated wood (right) after 30 seconds flame test.     763
• Figure 234. Worn Again products.             768
• Figure 235. Zelfo Technology GmbH CNF production process.       774
• Figure 236. Diesel and gasoline alternatives and blends. 780
• Figure 237.  Schematic of a biorefinery for production of carriers and chemicals. 791
• Figure 238. Hydrolytic lignin powder.      794
• Figure 239. Regional production of biodiesel (billion litres).           800
• Figure 240. Flow chart for biodiesel production. 805
• Figure 241. Global biodiesel consumption, 2010-2033 (M litres/year).      813
• Figure 242. Global renewable diesel consumption, to 2033 (M litres/year).            816
• Figure 243. Global bio-jet fuel consumption to 2033 (Million litres/year). 822
• Figure 244. Total syngas market by product in MM Nm³/h of Syngas, 2021.             824
• Figure 245. Overview of biogas utilization.             825
• Figure 246. Biogas and biomethane pathways.   826
• Figure 247. Bio-based naphtha production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes).            832
• Figure 248. Renewable Methanol Production Processes from Different Feedstocks.           834
• Figure 249. Production of biomethane through anaerobic digestion and upgrading.           835
• Figure 250. Production of biomethane through biomass gasification and methanation.    836
• Figure 251. Production of biomethane through the Power to methane process.   837
• Figure 252. Ethanol consumption 2010-2033 (million litres).         844
• Figure 253. Properties of petrol and biobutanol. 846
• Figure 254. Biobutanol production route.              846
• Figure 255. Waste plastic production pathways to (A) diesel and (B) gasoline         848
• Figure 256. Schematic for Pyrolysis of Scrap Tires.              850
• Figure 257. Used tires conversion process.            851
• Figure 258. Process steps in the production of electrofuels.          852
• Figure 259. Mapping storage technologies according to performance characteristics.        853
• Figure 260. Production process for green hydrogen.         856
• Figure 261. E-liquids production routes. 857
• Figure 262. Fischer-Tropsch liquid e-fuel products.            858
• Figure 263. Resources required for liquid e-fuel production.         858
• Figure 264. Levelized cost and fuel-switching CO2 prices of e-fuels.           863
• Figure 265. Cost breakdown for e-fuels. 865
• Figure 266.  Pathways for algal biomass conversion to biofuels.   867
• Figure 267. Algal biomass conversion process for biofuel production.        868
• Figure 268. Classification and process technology according to carbon emission in ammonia production.  869
• Figure 269. Green ammonia production and use.               871
• Figure 270. Schematic of the Haber Bosch ammonia synthesis reaction.  873
• Figure 271. Schematic of hydrogen production via steam methane reformation. 873
• Figure 272. Estimated production cost of green ammonia.             879
• Figure 273. Projected annual ammonia production, million tons. 880
• Figure 274. CO2 capture and separation technology.        883
• Figure 275. Conversion route for CO2-derived fuels and chemical intermediates. 884
• Figure 276.  Conversion pathways for CO2-derived methane, methanol and diesel.            885
• Figure 277. CO2 captured from air using liquid and solid sorbent DAC plants, storage, and reuse. 888
• Figure 278. Global CO2 capture from biomass and DAC in the Net Zero Scenario. 889
• Figure 279.  DAC technologies.   891
• Figure 280. Schematic of Climeworks DAC system.            892
• Figure 281. Climeworks’ first commercial direct air capture (DAC) plant, based in Hinwil, Switzerland.        893
• Figure 282.  Flow diagram for solid sorbent DAC.                894
• Figure 283. Direct air capture based on high temperature liquid sorbent by Carbon Engineering.  895
• Figure 284. Global capacity of direct air capture facilities.               900
• Figure 285. Global map of DAC and CCS plants.   906
• Figure 286. Schematic of costs of DAC technologies.         908
• Figure 287. DAC cost breakdown and comparison.            909
• Figure 288. Operating costs of generic liquid and solid-based DAC systems.           911
• Figure 289. CO2 feedstock for the production of e-methanol.      914
• Figure 290. Schematic illustration of (a) biophotosynthetic, (b) photothermal, (c) microbial-photoelectrochemical, (d) photosynthetic and photocatalytic (PS/PC), (e) photoelectrochemical (PEC), and (f) photovoltaic plus electrochemical (PV+EC) approaches for CO2 c     916
• Figure 291. Audi synthetic fuels. 917
• Figure 292. ANDRITZ Lignin Recovery process.    926
• Figure 293. FBPO process             939
• Figure 294. Direct Air Capture Process.   943
• Figure 295. CRI process. 945
• Figure 296. Colyser process.        952
• Figure 297. ECFORM electrolysis reactor schematic.          956
• Figure 298. Dioxycle modular electrolyzer.            957
• Figure 299. Domsjö process.       958
• Figure 300. FuelPositive system. 967
• Figure 301. INERATEC unit.           982
• Figure 302. Infinitree swing method.       983
• Figure 303. Enfinity cellulosic ethanol technology process.            1013
• Figure 304: Plantrose process.    1020
• Figure 305. O12 Reactor.              1038
• Figure 306. Sunglasses with lenses made from CO2-derived materials.     1039
• Figure 307. CO2 made car part.  1039
• Figure 308. The Velocys process.               1042
• Figure 309. The Proesa® Process.              1044
• Figure 310. Goldilocks process and applications. 1046
• Figure 311. Paints and coatings industry by market segmentation 2019-2020.        1052
• Figure 312. PHA family. 1071
• Figure 313: Schematic diagram of partial molecular structure of cellulose chain with numbering for carbon atoms and n= number of cellobiose repeating unit. 1076
• Figure 314: Scale of cellulose materials.  1077
• Figure 315. Nanocellulose preparation methods and resulting materials. 1078
• Figure 316: Relationship between different kinds of nanocelluloses.         1080
• Figure 317. Hefcel-coated wood (left) and untreated wood (right) after 30 seconds flame test.     1087
• Figure 318: CNC slurry.  1088
• Figure 319. High purity lignin.     1091
• Figure 320. BLOOM masterbatch from Algix.        1096
• Figure 321. Global market revenues for biobased paints and coatings, 2018-2033 (billions USD).  1098
• Figure 322. Market revenues for biobased paints and coatings, 2018-2033 (billions USD), conservative estimate. 1099
• Figure 323. Market revenues for biobased paints and coatings, 2018-2033 (billions USD), high      1101
• Figure 324. Dulux Better Living Air Clean Biobased.           1103
• Figure 325: NCCTM Process.        1125
• Figure 326: CNC produced at Tech Futures’ pilot plant; cloudy suspension (1 wt.%), gel-like (10 wt.%), flake-like crystals, and very fine powder. Product advantages include:         1125
• Figure 327. Cellugy materials.     1127
• Figure 328. EcoLine® 3690 (left) vs Solvent-Based Competitor Coating (right).       1131
• Figure 329. Rheocrysta spray.     1137
• Figure 330. DKS CNF products.   1138
• Figure 331. Domsjö process.       1139
• Figure 332. CNF gel.        1155
• Figure 333. Block nanocellulose material.              1155
• Figure 334. CNF products developed by Hokuetsu.            1156
• Figure 335. BioFlex process.        1169
• Figure 336. Marusumi Paper cellulose nanofiber products.            1172
• Figure 337: Fluorene cellulose ® powder.              1191
• Figure 338. XCNF.            1196
• Figure 339. Spider silk production.            1205
• Figure 340. CNF dispersion and powder from Starlite.      1207
• Figure 341. 2 wt.％ CNF suspension.       1211
• Figure 342. BiNFi-s Dry Powder. 1211
• Figure 343. BiNFi-s Dry Powder and Propylene (PP) Complex Pellet.          1212
• Figure 344. Silk nanofiber (right) and cocoon of raw material.       1212
• Figure 345. HefCel-coated wood (left) and untreated wood (right) after 30 seconds flame test.     1217
• Figure 346. Bio-based barrier bags prepared from Tempo-CNF coated bio-HDPE film.        1218
• Figure 347. Bioalkyd products.   1222