The Global Market for Biofuels and E-Fuels 2025-2035

1             RESEARCH METHODOLOGY              25

2             EXECUTIVE SUMMARY            26

• 2.1        Decarbonization          26
• 2.2        Comparison to fossil fuels    27
• 2.3        Role in the circular economy               27
• 2.4        Government policies 28
• 2.5        Market drivers                29
• 2.6        Market challenges      30
• 2.7        Liquid biofuels market             30
  • 2.7.1    Liquid biofuel production and consumption (in thousands of m3), 2000-2022 30
  • 2.7.2    Liquid biofuels market 2020-2035, by type and production.          32
• 2.8        Sustainability of biofuels       33

3             INDUSTRY DEVELOPMENTS 2022-2024      37

4             BIOFUELS        41

• 4.1        Overview           41
• 4.2        The global biofuels market    42
  • 4.2.1    Diesel substitutes and alternatives 43
  • 4.2.2    Gasoline substitutes and alternatives           44
• 4.3        SWOT analysis: Biofuels market        44
• 4.4        Comparison of biofuel costs 2024, by type                45
• 4.5        Types   45
  • 4.5.1    Solid Biofuels 45
  • 4.5.2    Liquid Biofuels              46
  • 4.5.3    Gaseous Biofuels       47
  • 4.5.4    Conventional Biofuels             47
  • 4.5.5    Advanced Biofuels     48
• 4.6        Refineries         48
• 4.7        Feedstocks      50
  • 4.7.1    First-generation (1-G)               51
  • 4.7.2    Second-generation (2-G)       52
    • 4.7.2.1 Lignocellulosic wastes and residues             53
    • 4.7.2.2 Biorefinery lignin         54
  • 4.7.3    Third-generation (3-G)             57
    • 4.7.3.1 Algal biofuels 57
      • 4.7.3.1.1           Properties         58
      • 4.7.3.1.2           Advantages     58
  • 4.7.4    Fourth-generation (4-G)          60
  • 4.7.5    Advantages and disadvantages, by generation        60
  • 4.7.6    Energy crops  61
    • 4.7.6.1 Feedstocks      61
    • 4.7.6.2 SWOT analysis              62
  • 4.7.7    Agricultural residues 62
    • 4.7.7.1 Feedstocks      62
    • 4.7.7.2 SWOT analysis              63
  • 4.7.8    Manure, sewage sludge and organic waste                64
    • 4.7.8.1 Processing pathways                64
    • 4.7.8.2 SWOT analysis              64
  • 4.7.9    Forestry and wood waste       65
    • 4.7.9.1 Feedstocks      65
    • 4.7.9.2 SWOT analysis              66
  • 4.7.10 Feedstock costs          67

5             HYDROCARBON BIOFUELS 68

• 5.1        Biodiesel           68
  • 5.1.1    Biodiesel by generation           69
  • 5.1.2    SWOT analysis              71
  • 5.1.3    Production of biodiesel and other biofuels 72
    • 5.1.3.1 Pyrolysis of biomass 72
    • 5.1.3.2 Vegetable oil transesterification       75
    • 5.1.3.3 Vegetable oil hydrogenation (HVO)  76
      • 5.1.3.3.1           Production process   76
    • 5.1.3.4 Biodiesel from tall oil                77
    • 5.1.3.5 Fischer-Tropsch BioDiesel     77
    • 5.1.3.6 Hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass         79
    • 5.1.3.7 CO2 capture and Fischer-Tropsch (FT)          79
    • 5.1.3.8 Dymethyl ether (DME)              80
  • 5.1.4    Biodiesel Projects       81
  • 5.1.5    Recent market developments 2023-2024  82
  • 5.1.6    Prices  82
  • 5.1.7    Companies     83
  • 5.1.8    Global consumption 84
• 5.2        Renewable diesel        85
  • 5.2.1    Production       86
  • 5.2.2    SWOT analysis              86
  • 5.2.3    Global consumption 87
  • 5.2.4    Prices  89
• 5.3        Sustainable aviation fuel (SAF)           89
  • 5.3.1    Description     89
  • 5.3.2    Recent market developments             90
  • 5.3.3    SWOT analysis              92
  • 5.3.4    Global production and consumption            93
  • 5.3.5    Production pathways                93
  • 5.3.6    Prices  95
  • 5.3.7    Sustainable aviation fuel production capacities    95
  • 5.3.8    Challenges      96
  • 5.3.9    Companies     97
  • 5.3.10 Global consumption 98
• 5.4        Bio-naphtha   99
  • 5.4.1    Overview           99
  • 5.4.2    SWOT analysis              100
  • 5.4.3    Markets and applications      101
  • 5.4.4    Prices  102
  • 5.4.5    Production capacities, by producer, current and planned               103
  • 5.4.6    Production capacities, total (tonnes), historical, current and planned   104

6             ALCOHOL FUELS        105

• 6.1        Biomethanol  105
  • 6.1.1    SWOT analysis              106
  • 6.1.2    Methanol-to gasoline technology     107
    • 6.1.2.1 Production processes              108
      • 6.1.2.1.1           Biomethanol from Biogas Reforming             109
      • 6.1.2.1.2           Biomethanol from Hydrothermal Gasification         110
      • 6.1.2.1.3           Anaerobic digestion  110
      • 6.1.2.1.4           Biomass gasification 111
      • 6.1.2.1.5           Power to Methane       112
  • 6.1.3    Methanol Synthesis Companies       112
• 6.2        Bioethanol       113
  • 6.2.1    Technology description           113
  • 6.2.2    1G Bio-Ethanol             114
  • 6.2.3    SWOT analysis              115
  • 6.2.4    Alcohol-to-jet (ATJ) & alcohol-to-gasoline (ATG): methanol & ethanol     115
    • 6.2.4.1 ATJ and ATG processes            116
    • 6.2.4.2 Ethanol Feedstocks   116
    • 6.2.4.3 Methanol-to-Gasoline (MTG) and Methanol-to-Jet (MTJ) processes          118
    • 6.2.4.4 Companies     119
  • 6.2.5    Cellulosic Ethanol Production            120
  • 6.2.6    Sulfite spent liquor fermentation      123
  • 6.2.7    Gasification    124
    • 6.2.7.1 Biomass gasification and syngas fermentation       124
    • 6.2.7.2 Biomass gasification and syngas thermochemical conversion    124
  • 6.2.8    CO2 capture and alcohol synthesis               124
  • 6.2.9    Biomass hydrolysis and fermentation           125
    • 6.2.9.1 Separate hydrolysis and fermentation           125
    • 6.2.9.2 Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF)    126
    • 6.2.9.3 Pre-hydrolysis and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (PSSF)      126
    • 6.2.9.4 Simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (SSCF)         126
    • 6.2.9.5 Direct conversion (consolidated bioprocessing) (CBP)      126
    • 6.2.10 Global ethanol consumption              127
• 6.3        Biobutanol      128
  • 6.3.1    Production       129
  • 6.3.2    Prices  130

7             BIOMASS-BASED GAS              131

• 7.1        Feedstocks      132
  • 7.1.1    Biomethane    132
  • 7.1.2    Production pathways                134
    • 7.1.2.1 Landfill gas recovery 134
    • 7.1.2.2 Anaerobic digestion  134
    • 7.1.2.3 Thermal gasification 135
  • 7.1.3    SWOT analysis              135
  • 7.1.4    Global production      136
  • 7.1.5    Prices  137
    • 7.1.5.1 Raw Biogas     137
    • 7.1.5.2 Upgraded Biomethane            137
  • 7.1.6    Bio-LNG             138
    • 7.1.6.1 Markets              138
      • 7.1.6.1.1           Trucks 138
      • 7.1.6.1.2           Marine 138
    • 7.1.6.2 Production       139
    • 7.1.6.3 Plants 139
  • 7.1.7    bio-CNG (compressed natural gas derived from biogas)  140
  • 7.1.8    Carbon capture from biogas               140
• 7.2        Biosyngas        141
  • 7.2.1    Production       141
  • 7.2.2    Prices  142
• 7.3        Biohydrogen   142
  • 7.3.1    Description     142
  • 7.3.2    SWOT analysis              143
  • 7.3.3    Production of biohydrogen from biomass  144
    • 7.3.3.1 Biological Conversion Routes             144
      • 7.3.3.1.1           Bio-photochemical Reaction              144
      • 7.3.3.1.2           Fermentation and Anaerobic Digestion        144
    • 7.3.3.2 Thermochemical conversion routes               145
      • 7.3.3.2.1           Biomass Gasification               145
      • 7.3.3.2.2           Biomass Pyrolysis      145
      • 7.3.3.2.3           Biomethane Reforming           145
  • 7.3.4    Applications   146
  • 7.3.5    Prices  147
• 7.4        Biochar in biogas production              147
• 7.5        Bio-DME            147

8             CHEMICAL RECYCLING FOR BIOFUELS      148

• 8.1        Plastic pyrolysis           148
• 8.2        Used tires pyrolysis   149
  • 8.2.1    Conversion to biofuel               150
• 8.3        Co-pyrolysis of biomass and plastic wastes             151
• 8.4        Gasification    151
  • 8.4.1    Syngas conversion to methanol        152
  • 8.4.2    Biomass gasification and syngas fermentation       155
  • 8.4.3    Biomass gasification and syngas thermochemical conversion    156
• 8.5        Hydrothermal cracking           156
• 8.6        SWOT analysis              157

9             ELECTROFUELS (E-FUELS)   158

• 9.1        Introduction    158
  • 9.1.1    Costs  160
  • 9.1.2    Benefits of e-fuels       161
  • 9.1.3    Production pathways                162
• 9.2        Green hydrogen            163
  • 9.2.1    Electrolyzer Technologies      164
• 9.3        CO2 capture   165
  • 9.3.1    Overview           165
  • 9.3.2    CO₂ Capture Systems              166
  • 9.3.3    Direct Air Capture (DAC) technology for e-fuel production              169
• 9.4        Syngas production     169
  • 9.4.1    Overview           169
  • 9.4.2    Syngas Production Technologies      170
    • 9.4.2.1 Reverse Water Gas Shift (RWGS)      170
    • 9.4.2.2 Direct Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis: CO₂ to Hydrocarbons  171
    • 9.4.2.3 Low-Temperature Electrochemical CO₂ Reduction              171
    • 9.4.2.4 Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells (SOECs)         171
  • 9.4.3    Solar power in E-Fuels             173
    • 9.4.3.1 Overview           173
    • 9.4.3.2 Key advantages            173
    • 9.4.3.3 Projects             173
  • 9.4.4    Companies     173
• 9.5        E-methane       177
  • 9.5.1    Overview           177
  • 9.5.2    Methanation   177
    • 9.5.2.1 Thermocatalytic methanation            178
    • 9.5.2.2 Biological methanation           178
    • 9.5.2.3 Companies     180
• 9.6        E-methanol     181
  • 9.6.1    Overview           181
  • 9.6.2    E-Methanol Production           181
  • 9.6.3    Direct methanol synthesis    184
  • 9.6.4    Companies     185
• 9.7        SWOT analysis              186
• 9.8        Production       187
  • 9.8.1    eFuel production facilities, current and planned   189
• 9.9        Electrolysers   190
• 9.10     Prices  191
• 9.11     Market challenges      193
• 9.12     Companies     193

10          ALGAE-DERIVED BIOFUELS 195

• 10.1     Technology description           195
• 10.2     CO₂ capture and utilization  196
• 10.3     Conversion pathways               196
  • 10.3.1 Macroalgae     197
  • 10.3.2 Microalgae / Cyanobacteria 198
    • 10.3.2.1            Microalgae cultivation for biofuel production           199
    • 10.3.2.2            Open cultivation systems      200
    • 10.3.2.3            Closed photobioreactors (PBRs)      201
  • 10.3.3 Companies     202
  • 10.3.4 Projects             203
• 10.4     SWOT analysis              205
• 10.5     Production       205
  • 10.5.1 Algal Biofuel Production         206
• 10.6     Market challenges      207
• 10.7     Prices  208
• 10.8     Producers         209

11          GREEN AMMONIA       210

• 11.1     Production       210
  • 11.1.1 Decarbonisation of ammonia production  212
  • 11.1.2 Green ammonia projects       212
• 11.2     Green ammonia synthesis methods              212
  • 11.2.1 Haber-Bosch process              212
  • 11.2.2 Biological nitrogen fixation   213
  • 11.2.3 Electrochemical production                213
  • 11.2.4 Chemical looping processes               214
• 11.3     SWOT analysis              214
• 11.4     Blue ammonia              215
  • 11.4.1 Blue ammonia projects           215
• 11.5     Markets and applications      215
  • 11.5.1 Chemical energy storage       215
    • 11.5.1.1            Ammonia fuel cells    215
  • 11.5.2 Marine fuel      216
• 11.6     Prices  218
• 11.7     Estimated market demand   219
• 11.8     Companies and projects        220

12          BIOFUELS FROM CARBON CAPTURE            221

• 12.1     Overview           222
• 12.2     CO2 capture from point sources      224
• 12.3     Production routes       224
• 12.4     SWOT analysis              225
• 12.5     Direct air capture (DAC)         226
  • 12.5.1 Description     226
  • 12.5.2 Deployment    227
  • 12.5.3 Point source carbon capture versus Direct Air Capture     228
  • 12.5.4 Technologies  228
    • 12.5.4.1            Solid sorbents               230
    • 12.5.4.2            Liquid sorbents            231
    • 12.5.4.3            Liquid solvents             232
    • 12.5.4.4            Airflow equipment integration            232
    • 12.5.4.5            Passive Direct Air Capture (PDAC)   232
    • 12.5.4.6            Direct conversion        233
    • 12.5.4.7            Co-product generation            233
    • 12.5.4.8            Low Temperature DAC             233
    • 12.5.4.9            Regeneration methods            233
  • 12.5.5 Commercialization and plants           234
  • 12.5.6 Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) in DAC  235
  • 12.5.7 DAC plants and projects-current and planned        235
  • 12.5.8 Markets for DAC           240
  • 12.5.9 Costs  241
  • 12.5.10              Challenges      245
  • 12.5.11              Players and production           246
• 12.6     Carbon utilization for biofuels            246
  • 12.6.1 Production routes       250
    • 12.6.1.1            Electrolyzers   251
    • 12.6.1.2            Low-carbon hydrogen              251
  • 12.6.2 Products & applications         252
    • 12.6.2.1            Vehicles             252
    • 12.6.2.2            Shipping            253
    • 12.6.2.3            Aviation              253
    • 12.6.2.4            Costs  254
    • 12.6.2.5            Ethanol              254
    • 12.6.2.6            Methanol          255
    • 12.6.2.7            Sustainable Aviation Fuel      258
    • 12.6.2.8            Methane            258
    • 12.6.2.9            Algae based biofuels 259
    • 12.6.2.10         CO₂-fuels from solar 260
  • 12.6.3 Challenges      262
  • 12.6.4 SWOT analysis              263
  • 12.6.5 Companies     263

13          BIO-OILS (PYROLYSIS OIL)    266

• 13.1     Description     266
  • 13.1.1 Advantages of bio-oils             266
• 13.2     Production       267
  • 13.2.1 Biomass Pyrolysis      268
  • 13.2.2 Plastic Waste Pyrolysis            269
  • 13.2.3 Catalytic Pyrolysis of Plastic                271
  • 13.2.4 Costs of production  271
  • 13.2.5 Upgrading        271
• 13.3     Pyrolysis reactors        273
• 13.4     SWOT analysis              274
• 13.5     Applications   275
• 13.6     Bio-oil producers         275
• 13.7     Prices  276

14          REFUSE-DERIVED FUELS (RDF)        277

• 14.1     Overview           277
• 14.2     Production       277
  • 14.2.1 Production process   277
  • 14.2.2 Mechanical biological treatment      278
• 14.3     Markets              278

15          COMPANY PROFILES                280 (238 company profiles)

16          REFERENCES 435

List of Tables

• Table 1. Market drivers for biofuels. 29
• Table 2. Market challenges for biofuels.       30
• Table 3. Liquid biofuels market 2020-2035, by type and production.        32
• Table 4. Industry developments in biofuels 2022-2024.   37
• Table 5. Comparison of biofuels.      41
• Table 6. Comparison of biofuel costs (USD/liter) 2024, by type.   45
• Table 7. Categories and examples of solid biofuel.               46
• Table 8. Comparison of biofuels and e-fuels to fossil and electricity.       48
• Table 9. Classification of biomass feedstock.          50
• Table 10. Biorefinery feedstocks.     51
• Table 11. Feedstock conversion pathways.                51
• Table 12. First-Generation Feedstocks.        51
• Table 13.  Lignocellulosic ethanol plants and capacities. 54
• Table 14. Comparison of pulping and biorefinery lignins. 55
• Table 15. Commercial and pre-commercial biorefinery lignin production facilities and  processes    55
• Table 16. Operating and planned lignocellulosic biorefineries and industrial flue gas-to-ethanol.      57
• Table 17. Properties of microalgae and macroalgae.          58
• Table 18. Yield of algae and other biodiesel crops.               59
• Table 19. Advantages and disadvantages of biofuels, by generation.       60
• Table 20. Biodiesel by generation.    69
• Table 21. Comparison of Fossil Diesel, Biodiesel & Renewable Diesel.  70
• Table 22. Biodiesel production techniques.              72
• Table 23. Summary of pyrolysis technique under different operating conditions.            73
• Table 24. Biomass materials and their bio-oil yield.             74
• Table 25. Biofuel production cost from the biomass pyrolysis process. 74
• Table 26. Properties of vegetable oils in comparison to diesel.     75
• Table 27. Main producers of HVO and capacities. 77
• Table 28. Example commercial Development of BtL processes. 77
• Table 29. Pilot or demo projects for biomass to liquid (BtL) processes.  78
• Table 30. Comparison of Biodiesel vs Renewable Diesel: Properties & Engine Compatibility. 80
• Table 31. Biodiesel Projects by Scale, Company and Location.   81
• Table 32. Recent biodiesel market developments 2023-2024.     82
• Table 33. Recent company activity in Biodiesel.     83
• Table 34. Global biodiesel consumption, 2020-2035 (M litres/year).        84
• Table 35. Global renewable diesel consumption, 2020-2035 (M litres/year).      88
• Table 36. Renewable diesel price ranges.   89
• Table 37. Advantages and disadvantages of Sustainable aviation fuel.   90
• Table 38. Recent market developments in Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF).        90
• Table 39. Production pathways for Sustainable aviation fuel.        93
• Table 40. Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) Projects by Scale, Company, Location, Technology Pathway, and Start Date.              95
• Table 41. Recent company activity in SAF.  97
• Table 42. Global Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) Consumption 2019-2035 (Million litres/year).           98
• Table 43. Bio-based naphtha markets and applications. 101
• Table 44. Bio-naphtha market value chain.               101
• Table 45. Bio-naphtha pricing against petroleum-derived naphtha and related fuel products.               102
• Table 46. Bio-based Naphtha production capacities, by producer.           103
• Table 47.Methanol Production & Colors      105
• Table 48. Main Pathways to Biomethanol Production         106
• Table 49. Comparison of biogas, biomethane and natural gas.   108
• Table 50. 1st Generation Bioethanol Production Processes.          114
• Table 51.Ethanol Feedstocks.            116
• Table 52. Methanol Feedstocks.        117
• Table 53. Methanol-to-Gasoline (MTG) Process Overview.              117
• Table 54. Alcohol-to-Jet (ATJ) Process Steps.            118
• Table 55. MTG vs MTJ Process Comparison.             118
• Table 56. Methanol-to-Gasoline (MTG) Companies.           119
• Table 57. Alcohol-to-Jet (ATJ) Technology Companies.      120
• Table 58. Cellulosic Ethanol Production.    121
• Table 59. Lignocellulosic Biomass Feedstocks.     121
• Table 60. Challenges in Breaking Down Lignocellulosic Biomass.             121
• Table 61.  Processes in bioethanol production.     125
• Table 62. Microorganisms used in CBP for ethanol production from biomass lignocellulosic.               126
• Table 63. Ethanol consumption 2020-2035 (million litres).             127
• Table 64. Properties of petrol and biobutanol.         129
• Table 65. Biogas feedstocks.               132
• Table 66. Existing and planned bio-LNG production plants.           139
• Table 67. Methods for capturing carbon dioxide from biogas.       140
• Table 68. Comparison of different Bio-H2 production pathways.                144
• Table 69. Markets and applications for biohydrogen.          146
• Table 70. Summary of gasification technologies.  151
• Table 71. Overview of hydrothermal cracking for advanced chemical recycling.              156
• Table 72. Technology & Process Developers in E-Fuels by End-Product.                159
• Table 73. E-Fuel Production Costs Breakdown.      160
• Table 74. Applications of e-fuels, by type.   160
• Table 75. Overview of e-fuels.             161
• Table 76. Benefits of e-fuels.               161
• Table 77. E-fuel production efficiencies.     162
• Table 78. Production Pathways for E-Fuels.               162
• Table 79. Electrolyzer Performance Metrics.             164
• Table 80. Overview of Electrolyzer Technologies.   164
• Table 81. Electrolyzer Technology Companies.       165
• Table 82. Main CO₂ Capture Systems.          166
• Table 83.Technologies for Carbon Capture 166
• Table 84. Syngas Production Technologies for E-Fuels.     170
• Table 85. Comparison of RWGS & SOEC Co-Electrolysis Routes.              172
• Table 86.Companies using Reverse Water Gas Shift (RWGS) for E-Fuels               174
• Table 87. SOEC & SOFC System Suppliers.               175
• Table 88. Companies in CO₂ reduction technologies.        176
• Table 89. Comparison of Thermocatalytic vs Biocatalytic Methanation 179
• Table 90. Methanation Companies 180
• Table 91. Power-to-Methane Projects,          180
• Table 92. Methanol Production & Colors.    181
• Table 93. E-methanol production methods.              181
• Table 94. Main process steps, key equipment, and operating conditions.            183
• Table 95.Companies in Methanol Synthesis              185
• Table 96. eFuel production facilities, current and planned.            189
• Table 97. Main characteristics of different electrolyzer technologies.     190
• Table 98. Market challenges for e-fuels.       193
• Table 99. E-fuels companies.              193
• Table 100. 3rd Generation Biofuel Production Feedstocks              195
• Table 101. Biofuel Production Process Using Macroalgae               197
• Table 102. Biofuel Production Process Using Microalgae / Cyanobacteria.         198
• Table 103. Open vs Closed Algae Cultivation Systems.     202
• Table 104. Microalgae Cultivation System Suppliers: Photobioreactors (PBRs) & Ponds.          202
• Table 105. Algal and Microbial Biofuel Processes & Projects.        203
• Table 106. Algae-derived biofuel producers.             209
• Table 107. Green ammonia projects (current and planned).          212
• Table 108. Blue ammonia projects. 215
• Table 109. Ammonia fuel cell technologies.              216
• Table 110. Market overview of green ammonia in marine fuel.      217
• Table 111. Summary of marine alternative fuels.   217
• Table 112. Estimated costs for different types of ammonia.          218
• Table 113. Main players in green ammonia.              220
• Table 114. Market overview for CO2 derived fuels.               222
• Table 115. Point source examples.  224
• Table 116. Advantages and disadvantages of DAC.              227
• Table 117. Companies developing airflow equipment integration with DAC.      232
• Table 118. Companies developing Passive Direct Air Capture (PDAC) technologies.    232
• Table 119. Companies developing regeneration methods for DAC technologies.            233
• Table 120. DAC companies and technologies.        234
• Table 121. DAC technology developers and production.  236
• Table 122. DAC projects in development.   239
• Table 123. Markets for DAC. 241
• Table 124. Costs summary for DAC.               241
• Table 125. Cost estimates of DAC.  243
• Table 126. Challenges for DAC technology.               245
• Table 127. DAC companies and technologies.        246
• Table 128. Market overview for CO2 derived fuels.               248
• Table 129. Main production routes and processes for manufacturing fuels from captured carbon dioxide.              250
• Table 130. CO₂-derived fuels projects.         252
• Table 131. Thermochemical methods to produce methanol from CO2. 256
• Table 132. Pilot plants for CO2-to-methanol conversion. 258
• Table 133. Microalgae products and prices.              260
• Table 134. Main Solar-Driven CO2 Conversion Approaches.         261
• Table 135. Market challenges for CO2 derived fuels.           262
• Table 136. Companies in CO2-derived fuel products.        263
• Table 137. Typical composition and physicochemical properties reported for bio-oils and heavy petroleum-derived oils.          266
• Table 138. Properties and characteristics of pyrolysis liquids derived from biomass versus a fuel oil.                267
• Table 139. Comparison of Pyrolysis Technologies.               267
• Table 140. Pyrolysis Products & Market Applications.        269
• Table 141. Main techniques used to upgrade bio-oil into higher-quality fuels.   272
• Table 142. Pyrolysis reactor companies.     273
• Table 143. Markets and applications for bio-oil.     275
• Table 144. Bio-oil producers.              275
• Table 145. Key resource recovery technologies       277
• Table 146. Markets and end uses for refuse-derived fuels (RDF).                278
• Table 147. Granbio Nanocellulose Processes.        345

List of Figures

• Figure 1. Liquid biofuel production and consumption (in thousands of m3), 2000-2023.          31
• Figure 2. Distribution of global liquid biofuel production in 2023.              32
• Figure 3. Diesel and gasoline alternatives and blends.      43
• Figure 4. SWOT analysis for biofuels.             45
• Figure 5.  Schematic of a biorefinery for production of carriers and chemicals.                55
• Figure 6. SWOT analysis for energy crops in biofuels.         62
• Figure 7. SWOT analysis for agricultural residues in biofuels.       64
• Figure 8. SWOT analysis for Manure, sewage sludge and organic waste in biofuels.      65
• Figure 9. SWOT analysis for forestry and wood waste in biofuels.              67
• Figure 10. Range of biomass cost by feedstock type.          67
• Figure 11. Regional production of biodiesel (billion litres).              69
• Figure 12. SWOT analysis for biodiesel.       72
• Figure 13. Flow chart for biodiesel production.       75
• Figure 14. Biodiesel (B20) average prices, current and historical, USD/litre, 2012-2023.           83
• Figure 15. Global biodiesel consumption, 2020-2035 (M litres/year).      85
• Figure 16. SWOT analysis for renewable iesel.         87
• Figure 17. Global renewable diesel consumption, 2010-2035 (M litres/year).    88
• Figure 18. SWOT analysis for Sustainable aviation fuel.    92
• Figure 19. Global Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) Production and Consumption 2019-2035 (Million litres/year).      99
• Figure 20. SWOT analysis for bio-naphtha. 101
• Figure 21. Bio-based naphtha production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes).        104
• Figure 22. SWOT analysis biomethanol.      107
• Figure 23. Renewable Methanol Production Processes from Different Feedstocks.       108
• Figure 24. Production of biomethane through anaerobic digestion and upgrading.        111
• Figure 25. Production of biomethane through biomass gasification and methanation.               111
• Figure 26. Production of biomethane through the Power to methane process.  112
• Figure 27. SWOT analysis for ethanol.           115
• Figure 28. Ethanol consumption 2020-2035 (million litres).           128
• Figure 29. Biobutanol production route.      129
• Figure 30. Biogas and biomethane pathways.          132
• Figure 31. Overview of biogas utilization.    133
• Figure 32. Schematic overview of anaerobic digestion process for biomethane production.   135
• Figure 33. Schematic overview of biomass gasification for biomethane production.    135
• Figure 34. SWOT analysis for biogas.             136
• Figure 35. Total syngas market by product in MM Nm³/h of Syngas, 2023.           141
• Figure 36. SWOT analysis for biohydrogen. 143
• Figure 37. Waste plastic production pathways to (A) diesel and (B) gasoline      148
• Figure 38. Schematic for Pyrolysis of Scrap Tires. 149
• Figure 39. Used tires conversion process.  150
• Figure 40. Total syngas market by product in MM Nm³/h of Syngas, 2023.           152
• Figure 41. Overview of biogas utilization.    154
• Figure 42. Biogas and biomethane pathways.          155
• Figure 43. SWOT analysis for chemical recycling of biofuels.        157
• Figure 44. Process steps in the production of electrofuels.             158
• Figure 45. Mapping storage technologies according to performance characteristics.  159
• Figure 46. Production process for green hydrogen.              163
• Figure 47. SWOT analysis for E-fuels.            186
• Figure 48. E-liquids production routes.        187
• Figure 49. Fischer-Tropsch liquid e-fuel products. 188
• Figure 50. Resources required for liquid e-fuel production.            188
• Figure 51. Levelized cost and fuel-switching CO2 prices of e-fuels.          192
• Figure 52.  Pathways for algal biomass conversion to biofuels.    197
• Figure 53. SWOT analysis for algae-derived biofuels.         205
• Figure 54. Algal biomass conversion process for biofuel production.      206
• Figure 55. Classification and process technology according to carbon emission in ammonia production.     210
• Figure 56. Green ammonia production and use.    211
• Figure 57. Schematic of the Haber Bosch ammonia synthesis reaction.               213
• Figure 58. Schematic of hydrogen production via steam methane reformation.               213
• Figure 59. SWOT analysis for green ammonia.        214
• Figure 60. Estimated production cost of green ammonia.               219
• Figure 61. Projected annual ammonia production, million tons to 2050.              220
• Figure 62. CO2 capture and separation technology.            221
• Figure 63. Conversion route for CO2-derived fuels and chemical intermediates.            223
• Figure 64.  Conversion pathways for CO2-derived methane, methanol and diesel.        223
• Figure 65. SWOT analysis for biofuels from carbon capture.          225
• Figure 66. CO2 captured from air using liquid and solid sorbent DAC plants, storage, and reuse.        226
• Figure 67. Global CO2 capture from biomass and DAC in the Net Zero Scenario.            227
• Figure 68.  DAC technologies.             229
• Figure 69. Schematic of Climeworks DAC system.               230
• Figure 70. Climeworks’ first commercial direct air capture (DAC) plant, based in Hinwil, Switzerland.                231
• Figure 71.  Flow diagram for solid sorbent DAC.     231
• Figure 72. Direct air capture based on high temperature liquid sorbent by Carbon Engineering.           232
• Figure 73. Global capacity of direct air capture facilities. 236
• Figure 74. Global map of DAC and CCS plants.      240
• Figure 75. Schematic of costs of DAC technologies.           242
• Figure 76. DAC cost breakdown and comparison. 243
• Figure 77. Operating costs of generic liquid and solid-based DAC systems.       245
• Figure 78. Conversion route for CO2-derived fuels and chemical intermediates.            249
• Figure 79.  Conversion pathways for CO2-derived methane, methanol and diesel.        250
• Figure 80. CO2 feedstock for the production of e-methanol.         257
• Figure 81. Schematic illustration of (a) biophotosynthetic, (b) photothermal, (c) microbial-photoelectrochemical, (d) photosynthetic and photocatalytic (PS/PC), (e) photoelectrochemical (PEC), and (f) photovoltaic plus electrochemical (PV+EC) approaches for CO2.             261
• Figure 82. SWOT analysis: CO2 utilization in fuels.               263
• Figure 83. Audi synthetic fuels.          264
• Figure 84. Bio-oil upgrading/fractionation techniques.      272
• Figure 85. SWOT analysis for bio-oils.           274
• Figure 86. ANDRITZ Lignin Recovery process.          286
• Figure 87. ChemCyclingTM prototypes.       293
• Figure 88. ChemCycling circle by BASF.       293
• Figure 89. FBPO process        304
• Figure 90. Direct Air Capture Process.          308
• Figure 91. CRI process.           310
• Figure 92. Cassandra Oil  process.  313
• Figure 93. Colyser process.  321
• Figure 94. ECFORM electrolysis reactor schematic.            326
• Figure 95. Dioxycle modular electrolyzer.    327
• Figure 96. Domsjö process.  328
• Figure 97. FuelPositive system.         339
• Figure 98. INERATEC unit.     356
• Figure 99. Infinitree swing method. 357
• Figure 100. Audi/Krajete unit.              363
• Figure 101. Enfinity cellulosic ethanol technology process.           391
• Figure 102: Plantrose process.           399
• Figure 103. Sunfire process for Blue Crude production.    415
• Figure 104. Takavator.               418
• Figure 105. O12 Reactor.        421
• Figure 106. Sunglasses with lenses made from CO2-derived materials.               421
• Figure 107. CO2 made car part.        422
• Figure 108. The Velocys process.     425
• Figure 109. Goldilocks process and applications. 427
• Figure 110. The Proesa® Process.     428

The Global Market for Biofuels and E-Fuels 2025-2035

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