The Global Market for Biofuels, Electrofuels and Green Ammonia 2022-2027

1              RESEARCH METHODOLOGY         12

2              EXECUTIVE SUMMARY   13

• 2.1          Market drivers  13
• 2.2          Market challenges           14

3              INDUSTRY DEVELOPMENTS 2020-2022    15

4              BIOFUELS            18

• 4.1          The biofuels market        18
• 4.2          Types    19
  • 4.2.1      Solid Biofuels     19
  • 4.2.2      Liquid Biofuels  19
  • 4.2.3      Gaseous Biofuels             20
  • 4.2.4      Conventional Biofuels    20
  • 4.2.5      Advanced Biofuels           20
• 4.3          Feedstocks         21
  • 4.3.1      First-Generation Feedstocks       22
  • 4.3.2      Second-Generation Feedstocks 23
    • 4.3.2.1   Lignocellulosic wastes and residues         23
    • 4.3.2.2   Biorefinery lignin              24
  • 4.3.3      Third-Generation Feedstocks     29
    • 4.3.3.1   Algal biofuels     29
  • 4.3.4      Fourth-Generation Feedstocks  30
  • 4.3.5      Advantages and disadvantages, by generation    31
  • 4.3.6      Market demand               33
• 4.4          Bioethanol          34
• 4.5          Bio-jet (bio-aviation) fuels            36
  • 4.5.1      Description         36
  • 4.5.2      Global market   36
  • 4.5.3      Production pathways     37
  • 4.5.4      Costs     40
  • 4.5.5      Biojet fuel production capacities                40
  • 4.5.6      Challenges          41
• 4.6          Biomass-based diesel     41
  • 4.6.1      Biodiesel              41
    • 4.6.1.1   Production          41
    • 4.6.1.2   Global market   43
  • 4.6.2      Renewable diesel            44
    • 4.6.2.1   Production          45
    • 4.6.2.2   Global market   45
• 4.7          Syngas  46
• 4.8          Biogas and biomethane 47
  • 4.8.1      Feedstocks         49
• 4.9          Biobutanol          50
  • 4.9.1      Production          51

5              ELECTROFUELS (E-FUELS)             52

• 5.1          Introduction       52
  • 5.1.1      Benefits of e-fuels           54
• 5.2          Feedstocks         55
  • 5.2.1      Hydrogen electrolysis     55
  • 5.2.2      CO2 capture       56
• 5.3          Production          56
• 5.4          Electrolysers      58
  • 5.4.1      Commercial alkaline electrolyser cells (AECs)       60
  • 5.4.2      PEM electrolysers (PEMEC)         60
  • 5.4.3      High-temperature solid oxide electrolyser cells (SOECs)  60
• 5.5          Direct Air Capture (DAC)               60
  • 5.5.1      Technologies     61
  • 5.5.2      Markets for DAC               63
  • 5.5.3      Costs     63
  • 5.5.4      Challenges          64
  • 5.5.5      Companies and production          65
  • 5.5.6      CO2 capture from point sources 66
• 5.6          Costs     67
• 5.7          Market challenges           70
• 5.8          Companies         70

6              GREEN AMMONIA           72

• 6.1          Production          72
  • 6.1.1      Decarbonisation of ammonia production               74
  • 6.1.2      Green ammonia projects              75
• 6.2          Green ammonia synthesis methods         75
  • 6.2.1      Haber-Bosch process      75
  • 6.2.2      Biological nitrogen fixation          76
  • 6.2.3      Electrochemical production         77
  • 6.2.4      Chemical looping processes        77
• 6.3          Blue ammonia   77
  • 6.3.1      Blue ammonia projects  77
• 6.4          Markets and applications              78
  • 6.4.1      Chemical energy storage              78
    • 6.4.1.1   Ammonia fuel cells          78
  • 6.4.2      Marine fuel         79
• 6.5          Costs     81
• 6.6          Estimated market demand           82
• 6.7          Companies and projects 83

7              COMPANY PROFILES       85 (122 company profiles)

8              REFERENCES       180

List of Tables

• Table 1. Market drivers for advanced biobased and renewable fuels.        13
• Table 2. Market challenges for advanced biobased and renewable fuels. 14
• Table 3. Industry developments in advanced biobased and renewable fuels 2020-2022.    15
• Table 4. Categories and examples of solid biofuel.             19
• Table 5. Comparison of biofuels and e-fuels to fossil and electricity.           21
• Table 6. Biorefinery feedstocks. 22
• Table 7. Feedstock conversion pathways.              22
• Table 8. First-Generation Feedstocks.     22
• Table 9.  Lignocellulosic ethanol plants and capacities.     23
• Table 10. Comparison of pulping and biorefinery lignins. 25
• Table 11. Commercial and pre-commercial biorefinery lignin production facilities and  processes 26
• Table 12. Operating and planned lignocellulosic biorefineries and industrial flue gas-to-ethanol.  27
• Table 13. Properties of microalgae and macroalgae.         29
• Table 14. Yield of algae and other biodiesel crops.             30
• Table 15. Advantages and disadvantages of biofuels, by generation.         31
• Table 16. Advantages and disadvantages of biojet fuel    36
• Table 17. Production pathways for bio-jet fuel.   38
• Table 18. Current and announced biojet fuel facilities and capacities.        40
• Table 19, Biodiesel production techniques.          42
• Table 20. Biodiesel by generation.            42
• Table 21. Biogas feedstocks.       49
• Table 22. Applications of e-fuels, by type.             53
• Table 23. Overview of e-fuels.    54
• Table 24. Benefits of e-fuels.      54
• Table 25. Main characteristics of different electrolyzer technologies.        59
• Table 26. Advantages and disadvantages of DAC.               61
• Table 27. DAC companies and technologies.         62
• Table 28. Markets for DAC.          63
• Table 29. Cost estimates of DAC.               63
• Table 30. Challenges for DAC technology.              64
• Table 31. DAC technology developers and production.    65
• Table 32. Market challenges for e-fuels. 70
• Table 33. E-fuels companies.       70
• Table 34. Green ammonia projects (current and planned).             75
• Table 35. Blue ammonia projects.             77
• Table 36. Ammonia fuel cell technologies.            78
• Table 37. Market overview of green ammonia in marine fuel.       79
• Table 38. Summary of marine alternative fuels.  80
• Table 39. Estimated costs for different types of ammonia.             81
• Table 40. Main players in green ammonia.            83
• Table 41. Granbio Nanocellulose Processes.         124

List of Figures

• Figure 1.  Schematic of a biorefinery for production of carriers and chemicals.      25
• Figure 2. Hydrolytic lignin powder.           29
• Figure 3. Liquid biofuel production and consumption (in thousands of m3), 2000-2021.     33
• Figure 4. Distribution of global liquid biofuel production in 2021. 34
• Figure 5. Ethanol consumption 2010-2027 (million litres).              35
• Figure 6. Global bio-jet fuel consumption 2010-2027 (M litres/year).        37
• Figure 7. Global biodiesel consumption, 2010-2027 (M litres/year).           44
• Figure 8. Global renewable diesel consumption, 2010-2027 (M litres/year).           46
• Figure 9. Total syngas market by product in MM Nm³/h of Syngas, 2021.  47
• Figure 10. Biogas and biomethane pathways.      49
• Figure 11. Properties of petrol and biobutanol.   50
• Figure 12. Biobutanol production route. 51
• Figure 13. Process steps in the production of electrofuels.             52
• Figure 14. Mapping storage technologies according to performance characteristics.           53
• Figure 15. Production process for green hydrogen.           56
• Figure 16. E-liquids production routes.   57
• Figure 17. Fischer-Tropsch liquid e-fuel products.              57
• Figure 18. Resources required for liquid e-fuel production.            58
• Figure 19. Schematic of Climeworks DAC system.               62
• Figure 20. Levelized cost and fuel-switching CO2 prices of e-fuels.             68
• Figure 21. Cost breakdown for e-fuels.   69
• Figure 22. Classification and process technology according to carbon emission in ammonia production.    72
• Figure 23. Green ammonia production and use. 74
• Figure 24. Schematic of the Haber Bosch ammonia synthesis reaction.     76
• Figure 25. Schematic of hydrogen production via steam methane reformation.    76
• Figure 26. Estimated production cost of green ammonia.               82
• Figure 27. Projected annual ammonia production, million tons.   83
• Figure 28. ANDRITZ Lignin Recovery process.       89
• Figure 29. FBPO process 100
• Figure 30. Direct Air Capture Process.     103
• Figure 31. CRI process.   104
• Figure 32. Domsjö process.          111
• Figure 33. FuelPositive system.  120
• Figure 34. Infinitree swing method.         131
• Figure 35. Enfinity cellulosic ethanol technology process.               152
• Figure 36: Plantrose process.      157
• Figure 37. The Velocys process. 172
• Figure 38. Goldilocks process and applications.   175